An overview of Antarctic polynyas: sea ice production, forcing mechanisms, temporal variability and water mass formation

Polynyas are irregular open water bodies within the sea ice cover in polar regions under freezing weather conditions.In this study,we reviewed the progress of research work on dynamical forcing,sea ice production(SIP),and water mass formation for both coastal polynyas and open-ocean polynyas in the Southern Ocean,as well as the variability and controlling mechanisms of polynya processes on different time scales.Polynyas play an irreplaceable role in the regulation of global ocean circulation and biological processes in regional ocean ecosystems.The coastal polynyas(latent heat polynyas)are mainly located in the Weddell Sea,the Ross Sea and on the west side of protruding topographic features in East Antarctica.During the formation of coastal polynyas,which are mainly forced by offshore winds or ocean currents,brine rejection triggered by high SIP results in the formation of high salinity shelf water,which is the predecessor of the Antarctic bottom water-the lower limb of the global thermohaline circulation.The open-ocean polynyas(sensible heat polynyas)are mainly found in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean,which are formed by ocean convection processes generated by topography and negative wind stress curl.The convection processes bring nutrients into the upper ocean,which supports biological production and makes the polynya regions an important sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide.The limitations and challenges in polynya research are also discussed.