19世纪穆氏家族与俄罗斯商人在恰克图交易大黄情况

The Murat Family and the Russian Merchant trade rhubarb in Kyakhta in the nineteenth century

自大航海时代以来,欧洲人认为中国甘肃、陕西地区出产的大黄是最具强健脏腑、镇静清热等疗效的药材。因此,他们希望透过各种管道取得大黄。自雍正五年(1727)年起,恰克图开市之后,清廷准许穆氏家族在恰克图卖大黄。俄国也派商人,前往恰克图买大黄。乾隆三年(1738),俄罗斯官方独揽大黄生意,以毛皮或其他物资向穆氏家族换购大黄。穆氏家族与俄国人买卖大黄时有纠纷,例如:拖欠俄罗斯人货期、缺额,或者压低大黄产地价格,高价卖给俄国人;优质与劣质大黄混充卖给俄国人。俄国人也曾拿优劣参半的毛皮与穆氏家族交易,或者不依合约另找商人买大黄。因此,中、俄双方官员不时得监督两方商人交易大黄情形,减少纠纷与冲突。因为大黄贸易利润丰厚,穆氏家族得应付恰克图章京事务处、衙门差派与陋规,而且家族成员之间也常发生利益纠葛,数度请求库伦办事大臣调解家族纷争。由此可见穆氏家族与中央、地方衙门关系匪浅。中、俄的政治情势、经济状况、外交政策、市场需求等诸多因素,均影响中、俄商人大黄交易量与换购商品种类。例如:18世纪,清廷数度关闭恰克图市集,大黄因法令限制不得出口俄罗斯,但欧洲市场需求大黄热切,俄罗斯商人转向走私贸易。由于俄国购买中国大黄数量、价格受欧洲市场影响。在俄国官方垄断大黄贸易期间,经常面临走私竞争压力,数度设法制裁走私活动。自1782年以后,俄罗斯开放大黄自由交易,大黄贸易逐渐由莫斯科、沃洛格达和库尔斯克等商人垄断。19世纪起,俄罗斯手工业逐渐兴盛,加上在西伯利亚过度猎捕动物,毛皮逐渐短缺,使得俄国商人改以毛纺织品、棉纺织品、皮革制品等取代毛皮向穆氏家族换购大黄。

Since the Age of Discovery,Europeans believed rhubarb from Gansu,Shanxi had positive efficacy on organs in the western medicine tradition.Therefore,they hope to obtain rhubarb from various sources.After signing the Treaty of Kyakhta in 1727,the Qing court permitted the Mu family to transport rhubarb from Gansu and Shanxi to Kyakhta for selling;the Russians also sent merchants to Kyakhta to fur switch rhubarb.In 1738,when Russian officials monopolized the rhubarb business,they appointed the Mu family as the only contracted rhubarb agent.They also dispatched deputies to trade Rhubarb with fur and other substances.The profits of rhubarb trade are very much high,so that the Mu family must pay a lot of brokerage for the Kyakhta officials.And the grand minister superintendent of Kulun usually mediates that the Mu family members dispute the profits of rhubarb trade. Chinese and Russian contacts are affected by many factors such as economic,and diplomatic.For instance,the Kyakhta market was closed on several in the 18th Century;and the merchant only smuggle the rhubarbs for the European market＇s demand.And the Russian merchant buy Chinese rhubarb quantity,price by the European market impact.Official Monopoly rhubarb trade in Russia during the Smuggle often face competitive pressures,On several managed to sanctions smuggling.Since 1782 after the liberalization of the Russian free trade rhubarb,Moscow,Vologda and Kursk and other merchants monopolize the rhubarb trade gradually.In the 19th Century,the Russian handicraft gradually flourished,and it is excessive hunting animals in Siberia,led to fur gradually shortages.So that the Russian merchant must replace commodities such as wool textiles,cotton textiles,and leather,to exchange the Mu family＇s rhubarb.