再释“土司”一词的演变

Re-explain the Evolvement of the Word of Chieftain

"土司"一词究竟如何界定,学界至今仍然是众说纷纭,见仁见智,但将"土司"一词在明、清两朝的演变细细梳理一番,则"土司"一词在不同时期的所指亦有脉络可寻。嘉靖时期"土司"一词刚刚从"土官"一词中衍生出来,使用次数很少,是明朝以来民间对于兵部或吏部所管辖的宣慰司、宣抚司、安抚司、招讨司、长官司等土官机构或首领约定俗成的泛称。万历至明末,"土司"一词开始普及,其所指与嘉靖年间大体相当,但也有个别例外。清朝以来,"土司"一词普遍泛化,往往与"土官"一词混用。无论是文职土官,还是武职土官,亦或藏族、维吾尔族部落首领均可称为"土司"。由此导致在《大清会典》中,吏部既管辖文职土官,也管辖文职土司;同样兵部既管辖武职土官,也管辖武职土司。清代"土官"、"土司"两词虽可混用,但吏部与兵部的管辖职责却是清晰的。

The opinion on how to identify the word of Chieftain still vary. After studying the its evolvement in Ming and Qing dynasty, the meaning of it in different times can be traced . During Jiajing period, the word of chieftain was derived from the word of ＂Tuguan＂, the number of use was rare , the title was conventional term for Tuguan organizations or leaders , such as Xuanweisi, Xuanfusi, Anfusi, Zhaotaosi and Zhangguansi which were governed by Ministry department or Board of Personal in Ming Dynasty. From Wanli period to the late of Ming Dynasty, the word of chieftain was widely used and it was almost same with the meaning of Jiajing period, and some exceptions also existed. In Qing Dynasty, this word became a popular one, and was mixed up with ＂ Tuguan＂, chieftain was not only for civilian post or military officer, but also for Tibetan leader or Uygur leaders . So it is no surprise to see in Qing Collected Statutes that civilian post Tuguan and civilian chieftain were both governed by Ministry of Personnel , military Tuguan and military chieftain were both governed by Ministry of War. Although the two words were mixed up in Qing Dynasty, the governing duty of Ministry of Personnel and Ministry of War was clear.