共生与制衡:清末民初云南藏区寺院与乡村社会关系的历史嬗变

Symbiosis and Mutual-Balance: Historical Vicissitudes of the Relationship between Temples and Rural Society in the Tibetan Areas of Yunnan in the Late Qing and Early Republic Era

清末民初的云南藏区社会,存在着多个民族或阶层共同构成的藏区社会体系,其中不同的社会群体相互影响,相互作用。在藏区集政治、经济、宗教文化等诸功能于一身的寺院,既是宗教机构,也是权力中枢,对藏文化圈内的乡村社会产生了巨大影响。寺院与藏区各方势力联合起来,通过政治、经济和文化等手段对乡村社会的控制,为藏区社会的变革以及近代化转型提供了可能性。在宗教体制下,寺院对乡村社会进行有效的控制,并对乡村社会提供宗教、政治、经济等服务。而乡村社会一方面乐于接受这种配套式的援助,并对寺院进行反哺,如对寺院提供宗教和经济的供养,担负寺院正常运转的职责,这种互惠的关系维系着藏区寺院和乡村社会之间的稳定发展。另一方面,乡村社会在寺院过于强势的控制下,每当与寺院发生矛盾纠纷时,乡村社会就会通过特殊的途径表达不满,如向当地政府对寺院进行控诉,或发起武装反抗,但乡村社会始终不放弃宗教上的虔诚和割裂对寺院的供养联系。寺院与乡村社会的互惠聚生关系,将宗教"福荫"下的宗教和民众紧紧地联系在一起,为藏区社会的发展变革创造了条件。

In the modern times,Tibetan Buddhist temples were religious institutions and the main power centers in Yunnan Tibetan areas. For a long time,Tibetan Buddhist temples played a leading role in local politics,the economy and culture.A reciprocal and symbiotic relationship had formed between the temples and the rural society through the temples 'control of the countryside,and the countryside's support of the temples. The symbiotic and interactional relationship was a significant characteristic of the unique patterns of rural society in Tibetan areas. The interactions of politics,the economy and cultural consciousness between the temples and the rural society resulted in the reconstruction of their relationship,and contributed to development and reform,as well as to the transition to modern Tibetan society.The interactional relationship between the temples and the rural society was mainly one of reciprocity and symbiosis. Reciprocity means that both sides provided mutual-benefits for each other in order to continue or strengthen their relations.Symbiosis means that different members of society or specific men in society got together and kept in close touch for certain purposes or common benefit. In fact,reciprocity is the prerequisite of symbiosis,and symbiosis is the concentrated expression of reciprocity. The common purpose of the reciprocity-symbiosis relationship here was to consolidate the stability of the ethnic group and to benefit its members' sustainable development.The first aspect was the political interaction between temples and rural society. In the late Qing dynasty and early Republic Era of China,political interaction was dominated by the temples. The tusi( native official) and liuguan( royal officials appointed by the central court) oversaw taxation,and legal and military affairs of Tibetan areas, but these administrative powers were "high-jacked"by the temples through the spread of religious power.Therefore,a situation in which there was tripartite confrontation among the temples,tusi and liuguan in the Yunnan Tibetan areas. The grass-roots rural members of society had to fall in line with the control of the temples most of the time,but when the contradictions reached ultimate limits,the rural society expressed their dissatisfaction to the control by the temples through violence. This kind of political interaction between temples and rural society was mainly due to people's deep understanding of the "goodness " advocated in the Tibetan Buddhism. Temples made full use of the psychology of believers to control the rural society. This kind of in-part political interaction between temples and rural society directly guaranteed the intermittent stability of Tibetan areas,which,to a some certain degree,was beneficial to the unity and development of the frontier.The second aspect was the economic interaction between temples and rural society. Rural families in Tibetan areas provided a big percentage of their family income as offerings to the temples. In return for this,the monks would also satisfy the rural society's spiritual,psychological and cultural needs—this kind of reciprocity is actually a relationship in which the monks "nurture or feed"thepeople,and the people "repay the monks in the same way a filial child feeds his parents ". This mutual economic assistance or reciprocal relationship had been gradually developing within the influence of religious culture dominated by temples.Tibetan Buddhism influenced the relationship of economic reciprocity to a large extent. A development theory of symbiosis only from reciprocity was formed in the unique natural and human environment of the Tibetan areas.Mutual recognition of the cultural identity ofthe temple and rural society was the third aspect.The identity of temples and rural society was mainly embodied in the group of monks in the temple and the ordinary people at the basic level of rural society. There were obvious differences between the monks and the ordinary rural people concerning their identities. The ordinary rural people had connections with temples through the political,economic and religious means,and,through this their cultural identification was constructed and strengthened. Furthermore,this kind of cultural identity was formed from both mutual support and mutual dependency.In the late Qing dynasty and early Republican Era of China,rural society changed from a closed and singular unit to a modernized rural community which had close connections with the outside world. Accordingly,a new type of relationship between the temples and the rural society was constructed.Firstly,the new type of relationship was reflected in the change of the social rights of the monks. Before modern times,especially before the late Qing dynasty and early Republican period,the monks in Tibetan areas held a very high social status which resulted from the local government's endowing them with different kinds of benefits. However,since the early period of the Republican Era,as the central government strengthened their rule over Yunnan Tibetan areas; the monks political and social rights were weakened to some degree.Secondly,social mobility promoted changes of the living situation of the monks and members of rural society. In modern times,many immigrants from the central plains area moved to Yunnan's Tibetan areas,bringing with them advanced production materials and different customs,and they integrated into the different ethnic groups in these areas. The result of this population mobility was that the life style of the people in the Tibetan area was influenced by the migrants. If population mobility brought about influence on the day to day habits of the local people in Tibetan areas,the regional trade contributed to the improvement of the quality of the local people's living conditions. As caravans entered the Tibetan areas,many new products played an important role in improving the quality of life.The essence of both population mobility and trade exchanges accelerated the flow of social resources in this area by optimizing the configuration of social resources. This,thus,changed the life style and customs of the monks and ordinary people,improved the quality of life,which was in accordance with the developing trend of modern society.Thirdly,the social relationships between the monks and members of rural society changed. Before modern times,even in the early modern period,the religious forces in the Tibetan areas of Yunnan,together with Tusi and Liuguan,formed the power system. As an important part of political power in Tibetan areas,the religious power,as represented by the temple,exerted a great influence on the social order in this area. With the collapse of the Qing dynasty,the central government had no ability to govern this interstitial area between Yunnan-Tibet-Sichuan. Moreover,due to the incessant presence of bandits,the political institutions of the national government could not keep a foothold in this area. The importance and influence of the temple,as an important participating force in the countryside society in Tibetan areas,was restored.After religion returned to the dominant position of social control,the temple had a closer connection with the rural society,and they once more confined the Tibetan people within the limits of religious will by using the powerful appeal of tradition.