过去与当代教育模式在亚洲国家的比较:印度、东南亚、中国

Comparison of Past and Present Educational Trends in Asia: India,South-East Asia,China

人类学目前还较少关注于教育问题,但研究教育有助于我们更好地理解不同的亚洲社会面对现代化所采取的应对措施。基于让-马克·德格拉夫(Jean-Marc de Grave)主编的《东亚国家正式与非正式教育:社会化及学习内容的关系》(2012)一书,本文将论及新型教育模式:印度英语的普及;印度和印度尼西亚现代学校的建立;印度尼西亚新兴的捕鱼技术;泰国克伦族人对"生态传统"的推广;中国村庄"故事堂"的成立;印度传统舞姬的消失以及当代社会家境良好的家庭对年轻女孩学习舞蹈的重视,并探讨不同社会中"传统"教育模式的同质性与价值观层面上的共通性,以及随着新型教育模式的引入,这些社会在教育领域所经历的不同程度的转型。

This article discusses the book Formal and Non formal Dimensions of Education in East Asia—Socialisation and its Link to the Apprenticeship Content（ Dimension formelle et non formelle de l＇éducation en Asie orientale： Socialisation et rapport au contenu d＇apprentissage） by Jean-Marc de Grave,assistant Professor HDR at Aix-Marseille University and Alain Pierrot,Professor of educational sciences at Paris Descartes University（ France） that first appeared in 2012 and is published by Les Indes Savantes. This very interesting journey through different approaches to education at different periods in Asian societies presents several field studies and analyses accompanied by two theoretical introductions from the authors,which review the scientific stakes of education. The domain of education is still less explored in anthropology than in other fields,yet,it is essential in helping us understand how Asian societies have managed to adapt to modernity,whether in the past during the colonial period or today.The heart of the approach is the distinction between two trends： so-called ＂formal education＂,that aims principally to achieve a specific result,and which takes place in ＂decontextualized ＂modes of transmission,and so-called ＂non-formal or informal education ＂,which values contextualized and relational modes of transmission. All the articles mention these two dimensions,including those which do not aim to compare past and present modes of education; the first trend is related to Westernized forms of education,while the secondis more traditional. This led me to question whether one can identify any coherences or shared values among the societies studied in the book. As a matter of fact,traditional ways of education all use the relational context,the vision of unity between body and spirit,and respect for masters as their principal means of transmission,while modern educational methods that have been put into practice throughout Asia place more value on autonomy and competition. The modernized forms of education have led to the use and generalization of English in India,to the creation of modern schools in India and Indonesia,to the introduction of new fishing techniques in Indonesia, to the creation of an＂eco-tradition＂among the Karen of Thailand,of a＂house of stories＂in a Chinese village,or the interdiction of dancing courtesans in India,etc. So,in discussing education＇s development in these societies,I have taken three cultural areas into consideration,which lead broadly to three distinctive developmental paths： India and English-speaking education; South-East Asia where the accent on traditional learning is still very present; and China,where the modern way of education seems to limit the traditional.The two chapters on India both underline the losses brought about by modernization in the field of education. Samuel Berthet in Learning stakes in the context of nationalist renewal in India gives an abstract of the historical transformations that have occurred since the arrival of the British up to the present. The Indians adopted European methods ofeducation as a means of liberating themselves from colonization and to create a modern autonomous nation. The new Indian elite was therefore taught in new public schools using written English in a total departure from traditional Indian learning methods based mostly on orality. It led to the creation of a society with a clear-cut differentiation between an educated elite and non-educated people. It also led to the degradation of the image of the body,because ＂Indian sensual weakness＂was taken to be responsible for defeat at the hands of the colonizer. That＇s how India opted for elitist and competitive practices in sports,such as polo,cricket and hockey. The second article from Tiziana Leucci the apprenticeship of dance in South India and its transformations in the XXth century： the case of the devadasi,rajadasi and nattuvanar depicts the disappearance of these female dancers,and with them their immense knowledge of ritual,music,dance,poetry and epics. After independence,this kind of dancing related to temples was widely considered＂primitive and indecent＂. At the same time,nationalist intellectuals began to consider Indian dance as a symbol of Indian cultural identity and started to promote new schools of dance unrelated to the temples. So now,Indian dance is no longer considered sacred and has become a modern object that India can present to the world. It has also become a leisure-time activity for young girls of good family rich enough to pay for lessons.In contrast to India the societies of South-East Asia presented in the book all chose to retain traditional learning within their modernized educational system. In Learning to Fish or Fishing to Learn —Dynamics of practices on East Indonesian seashores,Daniel Vermonden describes a form of learning that may appear very strange because it isn＇t considered a form of learning at all. The children grow up and fish with their parents, learning by symbiosis.Then,accompanied by a teacher of fishing,the novices learn by observation,slowly interiorizing the techniques. The fishing teacher never openly transmits his knowledge,but the fishermen not on-ly learn fishing with him step by step but also all the ritual knowledge and the way of relating to nature. Everybody＇s expertise becomes common to the community of fishermen,but new fishing techniques appear to endanger this traditional mode of learning. The method is similar in Thailand where Stephane Rennesson studies boxing（ From the trained body to the trained boxers—the question of transmission in Thai boxing）. By boxing one becomes a boxer,and not by following any special external training. By boxing,young boys learn a way of life,that is how to behave and know their place in a very hierarchical society. In Indonesia＇s Java,Jean-Marc de Grave pays special attention to high schools（ Formative types of education in Indonesia： relational quality and formalization）. As in India,new modern schools were created,but not without integrating certain ＂traditional Javanese pedagogic forms＂. For instance,the tutorship by teachers and older pupils is well developed and a deep relationship is organized around pupils and teachers. Moreover,traditional activities such as Javanese martial arts,rituals,music,etc. are still considered an essential part of social life by the Javanese people and help to organize and give coherence to society. The last chapter by Abiga3 l Pesses about the Karen of Thailand（ Integration of local knowledge in Thailand： Karen know-how at school and eco-tradition） describes how local traditions have been integrated into primary schooling.Thailand＇s 1999 educational reform stipulated that traditional know-how must account for 30% of total schooling time. So, ordinary villagers come to teach children,and sometime take them to the forest to perform ancestral rituals. In this way traditional know-how has been rehabilitated,bringing a new cultural identity to the Karen organized around an ＂ecotradition ＂—the traditional knowledge of the mountain environment.In China too,education is deeply related to the ability to ＂coexist with others＂. Gladys Chicharro studies primary schooling（ From gym to graphic art – apprenticeship and learning in Chi-nese elementary schools）. The uniformness of children by schooling is very developed in China,notably through corporal movements and body memory, for instance, needed to memorize Chinese characters. However,the children do not need to mobilize their thinking abilities very much. David Gibeault in Reception for a corpse—transmission and exteriority in China explores the transmission of songs and stories in a Chinese village. Children learn them through family transmission,both paternal and maternal,and through a master of songs who mostly sing during funerals. Since the reforms,the local government sponsored a house of stories that should have hosted singers and storytellers