欧洲文献中的土伯特:以13至18世纪为重点

“Tibet” in European Documents:With A Focus on the Period of Time from 13—18th Century

13至18世纪欧洲有关土伯特（Tibet）的文献中，用以指涉土伯特的符号繁多，拼写形式各异，所指亦千差万别。其中，蒙元时代形成的三个关于土伯特的直接知识传统，在现代早期占据重要地位，尤其把土伯特归属鞑靼范畴，一直延续到18世纪初期，欧洲学界才开始将之转属知纳（China）；1580年代以后欧洲传教士从实地发回报道，提供有关符号及其所指的新知，包括现在普遍接受的拼写形式Tibet和藏文化中的地理分类系统；深入的当地知识和欧洲认知框架之间的不一致关系导致欧洲东方学中出现二重土伯特观，跟二重知纳观交织，并与之一道成为其表述的内在机制、困境和缩影。

With a focus on the signifier of ＂Tibet＂ in European documents from 13th to 18th century, this article tackles the relation between critical signifiers about ＂Tibet＂ and those signified. During the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty, three intellectual traditions about ＂Tibet＂ were created in Europe that existed till the early modern times, leaving heavy impacts upon scholars, especially in the sense that they categorized ＂Tibet＂ under the scope of Tatar. This categorization lasted to the early 18th century when Europeans began to recategorize it under the scope of China. On the other hand, after 1580, with reports sent home by European missionaries, new knowledge about ＂Tibet＂, such as locals＇ geographic classifications, were provided, with new signifiers being created, including the modern spelling of ＂Tibet＂. The more they knew about it, they more tensions were observed between local knowledge and the European conceptual frames. This tension brought forth the views of double ＂Tibet＂ and of double ＂China＂, intermingling with each other in their writings, which constituted the internal mechanism, the predicament and the epitome of representations in European orientalism.