清宫藏传佛教文物与乾隆帝的宗教心态

Tibetan Buddhist Material Culture in the Qing Court and the Religious Mentalities of the Qianlong Emperor

受到藏传佛教观念的影响,乾隆帝再三自诩为文殊菩萨转世,不仅下令内府在所制唐卡中将其本人描绘成文殊菩萨,更授意文臣通过编纂《满洲源流考》来建构“满洲”(Manju)等同于“曼殊师利”(Manjusri)的考据政治学。对于乾隆帝钟情于藏传佛教的特殊现象,过去有清史学者根据乾隆帝所作《喇嘛说》,认为其个人对佛教的态度,不过是“兴黄教以安众蒙古”的统治工具,本文试图从物质文化研究的视角,以乾隆帝所用之右旋白螺为例,结合相关汉、藏、满、蒙文题记与相关档案史料,对以上观点进行商榷。通过考察清宫旧藏之右旋白螺及其所附密咒与铭文等文本,本文指出乾隆帝不仅有大量收集密教法器的喜好,并利用右旋白螺修习《时轮金刚续》《大威德金刚续》等藏传佛教无上瑜伽部的甚深密法。由于密法修习的保密性,本文认为乾隆帝内心世界中的藏传佛教信仰并不宜机械地理解为笼络蒙古的宣传工具;另一方面,通过对清宫旧藏密教法器与多语文献的“文/物”二元互证,亦可补充清朝官书与档案史料之不足,进而将过去清廷与西藏地方关系研究从政治史延伸至文化史、宗教史等多元范畴。

Influenced by Mongolian culture,the Manchus had contacts with Tibetan Buddhism before crossing beyond the Great Wall.Hong Taiji,the Shunzhi,Kangxi,and Yongzheng Emperors all had contacts with Tibetan and Mongolian lamas;however,the Qianlong Emperor had the most profound understanding of Tibetan Buddhism among the Qing Emperors.Influenced by the political ideology of Buddhist traditions in Tibet and Mongolia,Qianlong Emperor intentionally proclaimed himself as the reincarnation of Manjusri Bodhisattva.As a result,the emperor not only ordered the imperial household to produce Thangka paintings presenting him as Manjusri,but also organized literati to compile Researches on Machu Origins in order to construct the philological politics of equating“Manchu”with“Maujuri.”Considering the unique phenomenon of Qianlong Emperor's deep interests in Tibetan Buddhism,some Qing historians regarded his positive attitude toward Tibetan Buddhism as nothing but a ruling tool of the Mongols by referring to The Essay on Lamaism.Nevertheless,the present study re-interprets the relationships between Qianlong and Tibetan Buddhism differently by examining certain ritual implements and multilingual texts related to Qianlong's Buddhist belief.By studying white conches preserved in the Qing court,as well as multilingual sources in Chinese,Tibetan,Manchu,and Mongolian,this paper points out that Qianlong had a particular habit of collecting esoteric ritual tools.Additionally,this article sheds light on the fact that Qianlong practiced rituals associated with the Kalacakra and Yamantaka Tantras by using white conches.Concerning the confidentiality of tantric practice,this study argues that Qianlong's Buddhist belief should not be mechanically simplified as a ruling tool.Moreover,this article aims to emphasize the mutuality of“textuality/materiality”in terms of enlarging and diversifying the scope of studying Qing-Tibetan history.