Femoral mechanical performance of precocial and altricial birds:a simulation study

Background:As the major load-bearing structures,bones exhibit various properties related to mechanical perfor-mance to adapt to different locomotor intensities.The habits and ontogenetic changes of locomotion in animals can,thus,be explored by assessing skeletal mechanical performance.Methods:In this study,we investigated the growing femoral mechanical performance in an ontogenetic series of Cabot’s Tragopans(Tragopan caboti)and Pigeons(Columba livia domestica).Micro-computed tomography-based finite element analysis was conducted to evaluate the stress,strain,and strain energy density(SED)of femora under axial and radial loading.Results:Femora deflected medio-laterally and dorso-ventrally under axial and radial loading,respectively.Femora deformed and tensed more severely under radial loading than axial loading.In adult individuals,Cabot’s Tragopans had lower strain and SED than pigeons.During ontogeny,the strain and SED of pigeons decreased sharply,while Cabot’s Tragopans showed moderately change.The structural properties of hatchling pigeons are more robust than those of hatchling Cabot’s Tragopans.Conclusions:Limb postures have dominant effect on skeletal deformation.The erect posture is preferred by large mammals and birds to achieve a high safety factor of bones during locomotion.Adult Cabot’s Tragopans have stronger femora than pigeons,reflecting a better bone adaption to the terrestrial locomotion of the studied pheas-ant species.Changes in strain and SED during growth reflect the marked difference in locomotor ability between precocial and altricial hatchlings.The femora of hatchling Cabot’s Tragopans were built with better energy efficiency than deformation resistance,enabling optimized mechanical performance.In contrast,although weak in mechani-cal function at the time of hatching,pigeon femora were suggested to be established with a more mature structural design as a prerequisite for rapid growth.These results will be helpful for studies regarding developmental patterns of fossil avian species.