Immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated ophthalmic adverse events: current understanding of its mechanisms,diagnosis, and management

Immune checkpoint inhibitors(ICIs) targeting cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 and programmed cell death protein 1 receptor/ligand have revolutionized cancer treatment, achieving unprecedented efficacy in numerous malignancies. Despite the excellent therapeutic effects of ICIs, medications, such as pembrolizumab, ipilimumab, nivolumab, atezolizumab, avelumab, and durvalumab, typically cause a broad spectrum of toxicity events termed as immune-related adverse events(ir AEs). Out of all ir AEs, ophthalmic adverse events occur infrequently and are not comprehensively recognized. The current understanding of ophthalmic ir AEs is mainly derived from case reports and case series. In this review, based on relevant articles in the literature and current evidence, we summarize the incidences, manifestations, diagnoses, underlying mechanisms, treatments, and outcomes of ophthalmic ir AEs and discuss possible management strategies. A better understanding of these features is critical for managing patients with ICI-associated ophthalmic adverse events.