Deep learning-based detection of indicator species for monitoring biodiversity in semi-natural grasslands

Deep learning(DL)has huge potential to provide valuable insights into biodiversity changes in speciesrich agricultural ecosystems such as semi-natural grasslands,helping to prioritize and plan conservation efforts.However,DL has been underexplored in grassland conservation efforts,hindered by data scarcity,intricate ecosystem interactions,and limited economic incentives.Here,we developed a DL-based object-detection model to identify indicator species,a group of vascular plant species that serve as surrogates for biodiversity assessment in high nature value(HNV)grasslands.We selected indicator species Armeria maritima,Campanula patula,Cirsium oleraceum,and Daucus carota.To overcome the hurdle of limited data,we grew indicator plants under controlled greenhouse conditions,generating a sufficient dataset for DL model training.The model was initially trained on this greenhouse dataset.Then,smaller datasets derived from an experimental grassland plot and natural grasslands were added to the training to facilitate the transition from greenhouse to field conditions.Our optimized model achieved remarkable average precision(AP)on test datasets,with 98.6 AP50 on greenhouse data,98.2 AP50 on experimental grassland data,and 96.5 AP50 on semi-natural grassland data.Our findings highlight the innovative application of greenhouse-grown specimens for the in-situ identification of plants,bolstering biodiversity monitoring in grassland ecosystems.Furthermore,the study illuminates the promising role of DL techniques in conservation programs,particularly as a monitoring tool to support result-based agrienvironment schemes.