Interventions of natural and synthetic agents in inflammatory bowel disease, modulation of nitric oxide pathways

Inflammatory bowel disease(IBD)refers to a group of disorders characterized by chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal(GI)tract.The elevated levels of nitric oxide(NO)in serum and affected tissues;mainly synthesized by the inducible nitric oxide synthase(iNOS)enzyme;can exacerbate GI inflammation and is one of the major biomarkers of GI inflammation.Various natural and synthetic agents are able to ameliorate GI inflammation and decrease iNOS expression to the extent comparable with some IBD drugs.Thereby,the purpose of this study was to gather a list of natural or synthetic mediators capable of modulating IBD through the NO pathway.Electronic databases including Google Scholar and PubMed were searched from 1980 to May 2018.We found that polyphenols and particularly flavonoids are able to markedly attenuate NO production and iNOS expression through the nuclear factorκB(NF-κB)and JAK/STAT signaling pathways.Prebiotics and probiotics can also alter the GI microbiota and reduce NO expression in IBD models through a broad array of mechanisms.A number of synthetic molecules have been found to suppress NO expression either dependent on the NF-κB signaling pathway(i.e.,dexamethasone,pioglitazone,tropisetron)or independent from this pathway(i.e.,nicotine,prednisolone,celecoxib,β-adrenoceptor antagonists).Co-administration of natural and synthetic agents can affect the tissue level of NO and may improve IBD symptoms mainly by modulating the Toll like receptor-4 and NF-κB signaling pathways.