Yield gap and resource utilization efficiency of three major food crops in the world——A review

Yield gap analysis could provide management suggestions to increase crop yields,while the understandings of resource utilization efficiency could help judge the rationality of the management.Based on more than 110 published papers and data from Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO,www.fao.org/faostat) and the Global Yield Gap and Water Productivity Atlas (www.yieldgap.org),this study summarized the concept,quantitative method of yield gap,yield-limiting factors,and resource utilization efficiency of the three major food crops (wheat,maize and rice).Currently,global potential yields of wheat,maize and rice were 7.7,10.4 and 8.5 t ha^(–1),respectively.However,actual yields of wheat,maize and rice were just 4.1,5.5 and 4.0 t ha^(–1),respectively.Climate,nutrients,moisture,crop varieties,planting dates,and socioeconomic conditions are the most mentioned yield-limiting factors.In terms of resource utilization,nitrogen utilization,water utilization,and radiation utilization efficiencies are still not optimal,and this review has summarized the main improvement measures.The current research focuses on quantitative potential yield and yield gap,with a rough explanation of yield-limiting factors.Subsequent research should use remote sensing data to improve the accuracy of the regional scale and use machine learning to quantify the role of yield-limiting factors in yield gaps and the impact of change crop management on resource utilization efficiency,so as to propose reasonable and effective measures to close yield gaps.

Does nitrogen application rate affect the moisture content of corn grains?

Nitrogen fertilizer application is an important measure to obtain high and stable corn yield,and the moisture content of corn grains is an important factor affecting the quality of mechanical grain harvesting.In this study,four different nitrogen fertilizer treatments from 0 to 450 kg ha^(–1) pure nitrogen were set for a planting density of 12.0×10^(4) plants ha^(–1) in 2017 and 2018,and 18 different nitrogen fertilizer treatments from 0 to 765 kg ha^(–1) pure nitrogen were set for planting densities of 7.5×10^(4) and 12.0×10^(4) plants ha^(–1) in 2019,to investigate the effect of nitrogen application rate on the moisture content of corn grains.Under each treatment,the growth of corn,leaf area index(LAI)of green leaves,grain moisture content,and grain dehydration rate were measured.The results showed that,as nitrogen application increased from 0 to 765 kg ha^(–1),the silking stage was delayed by about 1 day,the maturity stage was delayed by about 1–2 days,and the number of physiologically mature green leaves and LAI increased.At and after physiological maturity,the extreme difference in grain moisture content between different nitrogen application rates was 1.9–4.0%.As the amount of nitrogen application increased,the corn grain dehydration rate after physiological maturity decreased,but it did not reach statistical significance between nitrogen application rate and grain dehydration rate.No significant correlation was observed between LAI at physiological maturity and grain dehydration rate after physiological maturity.In short,nitrogen application affected the grain moisture content of corn at and after physiological maturity,however,the difference in grain moisture content among different nitrogen application rates was small.These results suggest that the effect of nitrogen application on the moisture content of corn grains should not be considered in agricultural production.

Spectrum Characteristics of Cotton Canopy Infected with Verticillium Wilt and Applications

Hyper spectrum remote sensing with fine spectrum information is an efficient method to estimate the verticillium wilt of cotton. The research was conducted in Xinjiang, the largest cotton plant region of China, by using the data which were collected both by canopy spectrum infected with verticillium wilt and severity level （SL） in the year 2005-2006. The quantitative correlation was analyzed between SL and canopy of reflectance spectrum or derivative spectrum reflectance. The results indicated that spectrum characteristics of cotton canopy infected with verticillium wilt changed regularly with the increase of SL in different periods and varieties, Spectrum reflectance increased in the visible light region （620-700 nm） with the increase of the SL, which inverted in near-infrared region and was extremely significant in the region of （780-1 300 nm）. When SL attained b2 （DI = 25）, cotton canopy infected with verticillium wilt was used as a watershed and diagnosed index in the beginning stages of the disease. The results also indicated that there were marked different characteristics of the first derivative spectrum in these SL, it changed significantly in the red edge ranges （680-760 nm） with different SL, i.e., red edge swing decreased, and red edge position equally moved to the blue. In this study 1 001-1 110 nm and 1 205- 1 320 nm were selected out as sensitive bands for SL of canopy. Inversion models established for estimating cotton canopy infected with verticillium wilt reached the most significant level. Finally, the different spectrum characteristics of cotton canopy infected with verticillium wilt were marked, some inversion models were established, which could estimate SL of canopy infected with verticillium wilt. The best recognized model was the first derivative spectra at （FD 731 nm- FD 1317 nm）, and it might be used to forecast the position of cotton canopy infected with verticillium wilt quantitatively.

Study of corn kernel breakage susceptibility as a function of its moisture content by using a laboratory grinding method

The rate of corn kernel breakage in the grain combine harvesters is a crucial factor affecting the quality of the grain shelled in the field. The objective of the present study was to determine the susceptibility of corn kernels to breakage based on the kernel moisture content in order to determine the moisture content that corresponds to the lowest rate of breakage.In addition, we evaluated the resistance to breakage of various corn cultivars. A total of 17 different corn cultivars were planted at two different sowing dates at the Beibuchang Experiment Station, Beijing and the Xinxiang Experiment Station(Henan Province) of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. The corn kernel moisture content was systematically monitored and recorded over time, and the breakage rate was measured by using the grinding method. The results for all grain samples from the two experimental stations revealed that the breakage rate y is quadratic in moisture content x,y=0.0796 x^(2)-3.3929 x+78.779;R^(2)0=0.2646, n=512. By fitting to the regression equation, a minimum corn kernel breakage rate of 42.62% was obtained, corresponding to a corn kernel moisture content of 21.31%. Furthermore, in the 90% confidence interval, the corn kernel moisture ranging from 19.7 to 22.3% led to the lowest kernel breakage rate, which was consistent with the corn kernel moisture content allowing the lowest breakage rate of corn kernels shelled in the field with combine grain harvesters. Using the lowest breakage rate as the critical point, the correlation between breakage rate and moisture content was significantly negative for low moisture content but positive for high moisture content. The slope and correlation coefficient of the linear regression equation indicated that high moisture content led to greater sensitivity and correlation between grain breakage and moisture content. At the Beibuchang Experiment Station, the corn cultivars resistant to breakage were Zhengdan 958(ZD958) and Fengken 139(FK139), and the corn cultivars non-resistant to breakage were Lianchuang 825(LC825), Jidan 66(JD66), Lidan 295(LD295), and Jingnongke 728(JNK728). At the Xinxiang Experiment Station, the corn cultivars resistant to breakage were HT1, ZD958 and FK139, and the corn cultivars non-resistant to breakage were ZY8911, DK653 and JNK728. Thus, the breakage classifications of the six corn cultivars were consistent between the two experimental stations. In conclusion, the results suggested that the high stability of the grinding method allowed it to be used to determine the corn kernel breakage rates of different corn cultivars as a function of moisture content, thus facilitating the breeding and screening of breakage-resistant corn.

Systemic regulation of photosynthetic function in maize plants at graining stage under a vertically heterogeneous light environment

To cope with a highly heterogeneous light environment,photosynthesis in plants can be regulated systemically.Currently,the majority of studies are carried out with various plants during the vegetative growth period.As the reproductive sink improves photosynthesis,we wondered how photosynthesis is systemically regulated at the reproductive stage under a vertically heterogeneous light environment in the field.Therefore,changes of light intensity within canopy,chlorophyll content,gas exchange,and chlorophyll a fluorescence transient were carefully investigated at the graining stage of maize under various planting densities.In this study,a high planting density of maize drastically reduced the light intensities in the lower canopy,and increased the difference in vertical light distribution within the canopy.With the increase of vertical heterogeneity,chlorophyll content,light-saturated photosynthetic rate and the quantum yield of electron transport in the ear leaf(EL) and the fourth leaf below the ear(FLBE) were decreased gradually,and the ranges of declines in these parameters were larger at FLBE than those at EL.Leaves in the lower canopy were shaded artificially to further test these results.Partial shading(PS) resulted in a vertically heterogeneous light environment and enhanced the differences in photosynthetic characteristics between EL and FLBE.Removing the tassel and top leaves(RTL) not only improved the vertical light distribution within the canopy,but also reduced the differences in photosynthetic characteristics between the two leaves.Taken together,these results demonstrated that maize plants could enhance the vertical heterogeneity of their photosynthetic function to adapt to their light environment;slight changes of the photosynthetic function in EL at the graining stage under a vertically heterogeneous light environment indicated that the systemic regulation of photosynthesis is weak at the graining stage.

Maize grain yield and water use efficiency in relation to climatic factors and plant population in northern China

Water scarcity has become a limiting factor for increasing crop production.Finding ways to improve water use efficiency(WUE)has become an urgent task for Chinese agriculture.To understand the response of different maize populations to changes in precipitation and the effects of changes in maize populations on WUE,this study conducted maize population experiments using maize hybrids with different plant types(compact and semi compact)and different planting densities at 25 locations across China.It was found that,as precipitation increased across different locations,maize grain yield first increased and then decreased,while WUE decreased significantly.Analyzing the relationship between WUE and the main climatic factors,this study found that WUE was significantly and negatively correlated with precipitation(R(daily mean precipitation)and R(accumulated precipitation))and was positively correlated with temperature(TM(daily mean maximum temperature),T_(M-m)(T_(m),daily mean minimum temperature)and GDD(growing degree days))and solar radiation(Ra(daily mean solar radiation)and Ra(accumulated solar radiation))over different growth periods.Significant differences in maize grain yield,WUE and precipitation were found at different planting densities.The population densities were ranked as follows according to maize grain yield and WUE based on the multi-site experiment data:60000 plants ha^(-1)(P_(2))>90000 plants ha^(-1)(P_(3))>30000 plants ha^(-1)(P_(1)).Further analysis showed that,as maize population increased,water consumption increased significantly while soil evaporation decreased significantly.Significant differences were found between the WUE of ZD958(compact type)and that of LD981(semi-compact type),as well as among the WUE values at different planting densities.In addition,choosing the optimum hybrid and planting density increased WUE by 21.70 and 14.92%,respectively,which showed that the hybrid played a more significant role than the planting density in improving WUE.Therefore,choosing drought-resistant hybrids could be more effective than increasing the planting density to increase maize grain yield and WUE in northern China.Comprehensive consideration of climatic impacts,drought-resistant hybrids(e.g.,ZD958)and planting density(e.g.,60000 plants ha^(-1))is an effective way to increase maize grain yield and WUE across different regions of China.

专题导读:加强籽粒脱水与植株倒伏特性研究、推动玉米机械粒收技术应用

全程机械化是现代玉米生产方式的方向,当前条件下,机械收获、特别是机械粒收是我国玉米全程机械化发展的瓶颈[1-5]。为推动玉米机械粒收技术的应用,中国农业科学院作物栽培与生理创新团队自2010年起开展了相关工作,先后发表了30余篇相关研究论文,涉及玉米机械籽粒收获的理论基础、关键技术、模式集成等不同层面,研究包括籽粒脱水的生理机制[6-8]、不同品种的遗传差异[9-10]、区域生态资源特点与品种搭配[11-12]、机具的配套与应用[13]、籽粒含水和植株倒伏等限制收获质量提升的关键因素[14-15],以及其他与玉米机械粒收相关的内容[16-18],为该技术的推广应用提供了支持。

河西灌区玉米密植高产机械粒收品种筛选

为筛选适合河西灌区的机械粒收玉米品种,于2014、2015和2017年在凉州区和肃州区开展了6组适合机械粒收品种的筛选试验,共获得了72个品种122个品次的调查数据,分析结果表明:不同品种适宜机械粒收的特性存在较大差异:以籽粒含水率与单产2个因素按双向平均作图法进行分析,获得籽粒含水率低于平均值、单产高于平均值的品种(次)33个,占比27.0%;其中在2个点次以上表现出稳定性较好的品种有7个,包括迪卡517、登海618、先玉335、迪卡519、农华101、农华106和联创808;进一步以籽粒含水率与破碎率2个因素按双向平均作图法分析,筛选出破碎率低于平均值且籽粒含水率低于平均值的品种(次)有11个,包括破碎率低于5%的德单1002、中种8号、迪卡519和迪卡517(肃州区);破碎率在5%~8%之间的迪卡517(凉州区)、登海618、真金318、真金308、丹8201、M753和正德305。综合评价,推荐籽粒含水率低、耐破碎性能好和单产水平高的迪卡517、迪卡519和登海618为河西灌区适宜机械粒收品种。

核心素养导向下的初中化学实践作业设计

为了全面贯彻党的教育方针、发展素质教育,使学科作业更加合理、有效,本文尝试实施了初中化学寒假实践作业,利用QQ软件收发作业和群共享功能,对学生的作业进行批改、整理和评价。通过完成实践作业,不仅增强了学生的学习兴趣,提升了学生的动手实践能力,还发展了学生科学探究与实践的化学核心素养,促进了学生对化学的社会价值的认识。

倒伏对玉米机械粒收田间损失和收获效率的影响

通过大田机械粒收过程田间植株倒伏、机收落穗、落粒损失的大样本数据分析以及人工模拟倒伏控制试验,研究了倒伏率与机械粒收产量损失率及收获效率之间的定量化关系。结果表明,黄淮海夏玉米区田间倒伏率、机械粒收落穗率、落粒率均高于北方和西北春玉米区。大田自然条件下,倒伏对产量损失的影响主要表现为落穗损失,倒伏率每增加1%,落穗率增加0.15%;分区分析表明,倒伏每增加1%,春玉米区落穗率增加0.12%,夏玉米区落穗率增加0.15%;不同类型收获机械的测试结果表明,采用全喂入式机械时落穗率随倒伏率增加呈指数递增趋势,采用半喂入式机械时落穗率和倒伏率呈线性增加趋势,即倒伏在黄淮海夏玉米区对机械粒收落穗损失的影响更大。在倒伏控制试验条件下,倒伏每增加1%,落穗率增加0.59%;落粒与倒伏则呈显著负相关,可能与倒伏增加使进入机械的果穗减少从而降低了机械落粒有关;收获速度随倒伏率增加呈指数递减趋势,降低收获机割台可以减少落穗损失,但是降低了收获速度。通过选用抗倒伏品种、构建高质量群体、适时收获等防止倒伏措施,能够有效降低玉米机械粒收的田间损失。

田间密植诱导抽穗期玉米叶片衰老时的光合作用机制

为理解田间密植是否诱导抽穗期玉米叶片衰老以及衰老叶片的光合作用规律和机制,本研究以玉米"先玉335"为材料研究了抽穗期栽培密度对穗位叶和穗下第4叶的光环境、比叶重、氮素含量、叶绿素含量、气体交换以及叶绿素荧光诱导动力学的影响。结果表明,随着密度的增加玉米冠层内的光强大幅降低,尤其穗下第4叶;穗位叶和穗下第4叶的比叶重降低。同时,穗位叶和穗下第4叶的氮素含量和叶绿素含量均随栽培密度增加而下降。不同栽培密度下穗位叶荧光诱导动力学曲线(OJIP)未发生明显改变,而高密度下穗下第4叶OJIP的J和I相的相对荧光产量较低密度有提高趋势。高密度下,穗位叶和穗下第4叶叶片的光合速率、气孔导度和蒸腾速率均降低;不过,穗位叶胞间CO2浓度降低,穗下第4叶胞间CO2浓度增加。我们认为,田间密植条件下异质性光环境可以迅速诱导抽穗期玉米冠层下部叶片(如穗下第4叶)衰老;该过程中,光合作用的限制因素不是光能吸收和电子传递,而可能是碳同化。

基于根冠协调发展的东北春玉米高产种植密度分析

植株地上部与地下部的协调是生长发育的内在需求,分析种植密度对冠根协调的影响能够为玉米增密高产理论和技术提供新的视角。本研究于2020-2021年在吉林省中国农业科学院作物科学研究所公主岭试验站进行,以郑单958和先玉335两个耐密品种为试验材料,调查了玉米关键生育时期内根系和冠层的相关指标在产量稳定区间的2个种植密度(D1:6.75万株hm^(-2);D2:9.75万株hm^(-2))下的差异。试验条件下,种植密度从D1增加到D2,玉米的单株干物质积累量、根干重等均出现显著降低,群体指标表现不同。其中,2个品种的群体籽粒产量未出现显著提升,在根系各指标达到最大值的吐丝后15 d(R2期),群体根干重、根长密度等也未出现显著提升。随着生育进程推进,玉米的冠根比呈指数函数增长(y=ae^(bx)),增加种植密度显著提高了玉米冠根比,粒根比、叶根比也增加,根系压力增大。研究结果表明,玉米根系对种植密度的响应程度与地上部存在差异,在产量水平基本相当的前提下,根系压力较小的种植密度更有利于冠根协调和合理群体的构建。

地膜覆盖对黄土高原地区两种种植密度下玉米叶片代谢组的影响

在黄土高原地区,对覆膜条件下玉米叶片代谢组变化规律的研究是探索覆膜增产生理机制的重要方面。本研究采用气相色谱-四极杆-飞行时间质谱(GC-QTOF)技术,对2种覆膜方式(塑料膜覆盖和不覆盖)、2个密度(7.5×10^(4)株hm^(–2)和10.5×10^(4)株hm^(–2))和2个品种(郑单958和先玉335)的吐丝期玉米叶片进行了代谢组学分析。从差异代谢物个数来看,先玉335对覆膜的响应大于郑单958,较高的种植密度缩小了覆膜与无覆膜处理间叶片代谢的差异。主成分分析表明,覆膜处理和品种均对代谢物组成产生了重大影响。覆膜引起的代谢谱差异主要是由柠檬酸等有机酸和氨基酸造成的;品种引起的代谢组差异主要是由辛酸等烷酸和酚类造成的。相关分析表明,叶绿醇、白藜芦醇、葡萄糖-6-磷酸与玉米籽粒产量呈显著正相关关系,而甘油与之呈显著负相关关系。在覆膜条件下,与呼吸作用及清除光呼吸产物相关的缬氨酸、异亮氨酸及蛋氨酸,与三羧酸循环相关的异柠檬酸以及可减轻光抑制的蛋氨酸、N-乙酰基天冬氨酸等代谢物的水平整体呈升高趋势。以上结果表明,在覆膜条件下,消除光呼吸产物及减少光抑制的相关代谢物的积累是叶片净光合速率提高的代谢基础;抗氧化及能量代谢相关的代谢物在提高产量的过程中发挥了重要作用。

Research progress on reduced lodging of high-yield and-density maize

Increasing plant density is an effective way to enhance maize yield, but often increases lodging rate and severity, significantly elevating the risk and cost of maize production. Therefore, lodging is a major factor restricting future increases in maize yield through high-density planting. This paper reviewed previous research on the relationships between maize lodging rate and plant morphology, mechanical strength of stalks, anatomical and biochemical characteristics of stalks, root characteristics, damage from pests and diseases, environmental factors, and genomic characteristics. The effects of planting density on these factors and explored possible ways to improve lodging resistance were also analyzed in this paper. The results provide a basis for future research on increasing maize lodging resistance under high-density planting conditions and can be used to develop maize cultivation practices and lodging-resistant maize cultivars.

Key indicators affecting maize stalk lodging resistance of different growth periods under different sowing dates

The accurate evaluation of maize stalk lodging resistance in different growth periods enables timely management of lodging risks and ensures stable and high maize yields.Here,we established five diferent sowing dates to create diferent conditions for maize growth.We evaluated the effects of the different growth conditions on lodging resistance by determining stalk morphology,moisture content,mechanical strength and dry matter,and the relationship between stalk breaking force and these indicators during the silking stage(R1),milk stage(R3),physiological maturity stage(R6),and 20 days after R6.Plant height at R1 positively affected stalk breaking force.At R3,the cofficient of ear height and the dry weight per unit length of basal internodes were key indicators of stalk lodging resistance.At R6,the key indicators were the coefficient of the center of gravity height and plant fresh weight.After R6,the key indicator was the coefficient of the center of gravity height.The crushing strength of the fourth internode correlated significanty and positively with the stalk breaking force from R1 to R6,which indicates that crushing strength is a reliable indicator of stalk mechanical strength.These results suggest that high stalk strength and low ear height beneft lodging resistance prior to R6.During and after R6,the cofficient of the center of gravity height and the mechanical strength of basal internodes can be used to evaluate plant lodging resistance and the appropriate time for harvesting in fields with a high lodging risk.

Maize Yield Gains in Northeast China in the Last Six Decades

In 2010, Chinese maize yields increased from 961.5 kg ha-1 in 1949 to 5 453.8 kg ha-L This increase is the result of genetic improvements, an increase in nitrogen application, and refinement of planting densities. The objective of this study was to provide a theoretical basis for maize production research by analyzing the maize yield gain characteristics. Six varieties of maize were selected for the study; each selection is representative of a typical or commonly used maize variety from a specific decade, beginning from the 1950s and continuing through each decade into the 2000s. The selections and their corresponding decade were as follows： Baihe, 1950s; Jidan 101, 1960s; Zhongdan 2, 1970s; Yedan 13, 1980s; Zhengdan 958, 1990s; and Xianyu 335, 2000s. Each variety was planted under four different densities （37 500, 52 500, 67 500, and 82 500 plants ha-0 and four different nitrogen applications （0, 150, 225, and 300 kg ha-1 to study the effects on yield gain characteristics. The obtained results demonstrated that there was a maize yield increase of 123.19% between the 1950s variety and the 2000s variety. Modern Chinese maize varieties had a higher yield advantage. They also displayed the additional potential to acquire higher yield under increased planting densities and nitrogen applications. At the present cultivation levels （planting at 67 500 plants ha-~ with 225 kg ha-1 nitrogen application）, the contribution types and corresponding yield increase percentages were as follows： genetic improvement, 45.37%; agronomic-management improvement, 30.94%; and genotype× agronomicmanagement interaction, 23.69%. At high-yielding cultivation levels （planting at 82 500 plants ha-1 with 300 kg ha-1 nitrogen application）, the contribution types and corresponding yield increase percentages were as follows： genetic improvement, 31.30%; agronomic-management improvement, 36.23%; and genotype × agronomic-management interaction, 32.47%. The contribution of agronomic-management and genotype ×agronomic-management interaction to yield increase would be larger with the corresponding management improvement. To further increase maize grain yield in China, researchers should further examine the adaptation of variety to agronomic-management. effects of agronomic-management on maize yield and the

SPEI_(PM)-based research on drought impact on maize yield in North China Plain

The calculation method of potential evapotranspiration（PET） was improved by adopting a more reliable PET estimate based on the Penman-Monteith equation into the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index（SPEI） in this study（SPEI PM）. This improvement increased the applicability of SPEI in North China Plain（NCP）. The historic meteorological data during 1962–2011 were used to calculate SPEI PM. The detrended yields of maize from Hebei, Henan, Shandong, Beijing, and Tianjin provinces/cities of NCP were obtained by linear sliding average method. Then regression analysis was made to study the relationships between detrended yields and SPEI values. Different time scales were applied, and thus SPEI PM was mentioned as SPEI PMk-j（k=time scale, 1, 2, 3, 4,…, 24 mon; j=month, 1, 2, 3,..., 12）, among which SPEI PM3-8 reflected the water condition from June to August, a period of heavy precipitation and vigorous growth of maize in NCP. SPEI PM3-8 was highly correlated with detrended yield in this region, which can effectively evaluate the effect of drought on maize yield. Additionally, this relationship becomes more significant in recent 20 yr. The regression model based on the SPEI series explained 64.8% of the variability of the annual detrended yield in Beijing, 45.2% in Henan, 58.6% in Shandong, and 54.6% in Hebei. Moreover, when SPEI PM3-8 is in the range of –0.6 to 1.1, –0.9 to 0.8 and –0.8 to 2.3, the detrended yield increases in Shandong, Henan and Beijing. The yield increasing range was during normal water condition in Shandong and Henan, where precipitation was abundant. It indicated that the field management matched well with local water condition and thus allowed stable and high yield. Maize yield increase in these two provinces in the future can be realized by further improving water use efficiency and enhancing the stress resistance as well as yield stability. In Hebei and Beijing, the precipitation is less and thus the normal water condition cannot meet the high yield target. Increasing of water input and improving water use efficiency are both strategies for future yield increase. As global climate change became stronger and yield demands increased, the relationship between drought and maize yield became much closer in NCP too. The research of drought monitoring method and strategies for yield increase should be enhanced in the future, so as to provide strong supports for food security and agricultural sustainable development in China.

Evaluation and analysis of intraspecific competition in maize: A case study on plant density experiment

Intraspecific competition is a common phenomenon in agricultural production,and maize is one of the most sensitive grass species to intraspecific competition due to its low tillering ability.This study evaluated and analyzed intraspecific competition in maize,and screened competitive indices that could be used to evaluate intraspecific competition in a maize population.A 2-year field experiment was conducted using the maize hybrid Zhongdan 2 at 12 plant densities ranging from 1.5 to 18.0 plants（pl）m-2.The results showed that the response of single-plant grain yield and dry matter at harvest to increased plant density decreased exponentially and that the harvest index decreased linearly.The response of population-level grain yield to plant density was curvilinear,producing a maximum value at the optimum population density.However,the yielddensity equation agreed well with the Steinhart-Hart equation curves,but not with the quadratic equation curves reported by most previous studies.Competitive indices are used to evaluate competition in a plant population or plant species.The present results show that competitive intensity（CI）and absolute severity of competition（ASC）increased with increasing plant density;however,relative yield（RY）and relative reproductive efficiency（RReff）decreased.The different responses of these indices reflect different aspects of competition.According to the analysis of CI,ASC,RY,and RReff,higher CI and ASC values indicate higher intraspecific competition,whereas higher RY and RReff values indirectly reflect lower intraspecific competition.These competitive indices evaluate not only the intraspecific competitive intensity under different plant densities of the same cultivar but also those of different cultivars under the same plant density.However,some overlap exists in the calculations of ASC,CI,and RY,so one could simply select any one of these indices to evaluate intraspecific competition in a maize population.In conclusion,the present study provides a method to evaluate intraspecific competition in maize populations,which may be beneficial for breeding high-yield maize varieties in the future.

Studies on the Root Characteristics of Maize Varieties of Different Eras

Experiment was conducted at the Gongzhuling Experimental Station of Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jilin Province, China, during 2009-2010. Six representative varieties of maize （Baihe in the 1950s, Jidan 101 in the 1960s, Zhongdan 2 in the 1970s, Yedan 13 in the 1980s, Zhengdan 958 in the 1990s, and Xianyu 335 in the 2000s） were each planted under two different densities （52 500 and 82 500 plants ha-~） and two different nitrogen application levels （150 and 300 kg ha-l）. Root characteristics and distribution among soil layers were studied by the field root digging method. The results showed that root mass increased with the process of the growth and development of the plant, and it peaked at kernel filling stage, and decreased at maturity due to the root senesces. Root mass of different maize varieties from the 1950s to 1980s had a trend of increase, while it decreased for the modern varieties. Root length and root surface areas had the similar changing trend. The study suggested that early maize varieties may have root redundancy, and reducing root redundancy may be a direction for variety improvement for high yield. Root characteristics were affected by nitrogen application level and density; modern varieties were more suitable for higher fertilizer application level and density conditions. Root characteristics distribution among soil layers decreased by an exponent equation, but the regression coefficients of different varieties were different. Though the root length density （RLD） of every soil layer of different varieties also decreased by an exponent equation, there were large variations of RLD in every part of a layer.

Artificial Neural Network to Predict Leaf Population Chlorophyll Content from Cotton Plant Images

Leaf population chlorophyll content in a population of crops, if obtained in a timely manner, served as a key indicator for growth management and diseases diagnosis. In this paper, a three-layer multilayer perceptron （MLP） artificial neural network （ANN） based prediction system was presented for predicting the leaf population chlorophyll content from the cotton plant images. As the training of this prediction system relied heavily on how well those leaf green pixels were separated from background noises in cotton plant images, a global thresholding algorithm and an omnidirectional scan noise filtering coupled with the hue histogram statistic method were designed for leaf green pixel extraction. With the obtained leaf green pixels, the system training was carried out by applying a back propagation algorithm. The proposed system was tested to predict the chlorophyll content from the cotton plant images. The results using the proposed system were in sound agreement with those obtained by the destructive method. The average prediction relative error for the chlorophyll density （μg cm^-2） in the 17 testing images was 8.41%.