Nature’s Pharmacy under Siege: Investigating Antibiotic Resistance Pattern in Endophytic Bacteria of Medicinal Plants

Antibiotic resistance poses a significant global health threat, necessitating a thorough understanding of its prevalence in various ecological contexts. Medicinal plants, renowned for their therapeutic properties, host endophytic bacteria that produce bioactive compounds. Understanding antibiotic resistance dynamics in these bacteria is vital for human health and antibiotic efficacy preservation. In this study, we investigated antibiotic resistance profiles in endophytic bacteria from five medicinal plants: Thankuni, Neem, Aparajita, Joba, and Snake plant. We isolated and characterized 113 endophytic bacteria, with varying resistance patterns observed against multiple antibiotics. Notably, 53 strains were multidrug-resistant (MDR), with 14 exhibiting extensive drug resistance (XDR). Thankuni-associated bacteria displayed 44% MDR and 11% XDR, while Neem-associated bacteria showed higher resistance (60% MDR, 13% XDR). Aparajita-associated bacteria had lower resistance (22% MDR, 6% XDR), whereas Joba-associated bacteria exhibited substantial resistance (54% MDR, 14% XDR). Snake plant-associated bacteria showed 7% MDR and 4% XDR. Genus-specific distribution revealed Bacillus (47%), Staphylococcus (21%), and Klebsiella (11%) as major contributors to MDR. Our findings highlight diverse drug resistance patterns among plant-associated bacteria and underscore the complexity of antibiotic resistance dynamics in diverse plant environments. Identification of XDR strains emphasizes the severity of the antibiotic resistance problem, warranting further investigation into contributing factors.

Association of Host Interferon-γ Gene Polymorphism with Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Pregnant Women of Bangladesh

Human toxoplasmosis is caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Although T. gondii infection is generally asymptomatic for most of the immunocompetent adults, severe complications may occur particularly in pregnant women and immunocompromised individual. Host cell immunity plays a critical role in parasite differentiation and persistence in the host. Therefore, genetic polymorphism in the host immune genes, for instance interferon-γ gene could be linked with possibility of T. gondii infection. The objective of the study was to verify the link between the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the IFN-γ gene of pregnant women and T. gondii infection through correlating with anthropometric and sociodemographic parameters. In this study, ninety-two (N = 92) pregnant women (16 - 40 years) and healthy controls (N = 95) with similar age ranges were included. Among them, 25% (n = 23) pregnant women were seropositive for T. gondii IgG antibodies by Rapid Test Assay. Allelic and genotypic frequencies of IFN-γ +874T/A (rs2430561) SNPs were evaluated by using ARMS-PCR. The distribution of the A and T alleles in the specific position of the IFN-γ gene in the T. gondii-infected pregnant women and the control groups did not differ significantly, according to the data. However, we found a higher frequency (13.04%) of A/A genotype in T. gondii infected pregnant women as compared to non-infected individuals (8.70%), demonstrating that T. gondii infection susceptibility may be increased by homozygosity for the A allele. Further studies are to be needed to find out the link between host gene polymorphism and T. gondii infection in Bangladesh.

Oxidative stress and human health

Redox degenerative reactions of the biological system inevitably produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and their derivatives. Oxidative stress is the result of an imbalance in pro-oxidant/antioxidant homeostasis that leads to the generation of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide, organic hydro peroxides, nitric oxide, superoxide and hydroxyl radicals etc. Information are accumulating steadily, supporting the general importance of oxidative damage of tissue and cellular components as a primary or secondary causative factor in many different human diseases and aging processes. Many of the recent landmarks in scientific research have shown that in human beings, oxidative stress has been implicated in the progression of major health problems by inactivating the metabolic enzymes and damaging important cellular components, oxidizing the nucleic acids, leading to cardiovascular diseases, eye disorders, joint disorders, neurological diseases (Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), atherosclerosis, lung and kidney disorders, liver and pancreatic diseases, cancer, ageing, disease of the reproductive system including the male and female infertility etc. The advent of a growing number of in vitro and in vivo models for evaluating the human disease pathology is aiding scientists in deciphering the detailed mechanisms of the point of intersection of the oxidative stress with other cellular components or events in the growing roadmap leading to different human disorders. The toxic effect of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in human is balanced by the antioxidant action of non-enzymatic antioxidants, as well as by antioxidant enzymes. Such antioxidant defences are extremely important as they represent the direct removal of free radicals (prooxidants), thus providing maximal protection for biological sites. These systems not only assert with the problem of oxidative damage, but also play a crucial role in wellness, health maintenance, and prevention of chronic and degenerative diseases. In this review we have tried to generate a gross picture on the critical role of ROS in deteriorating human health and the importance of antioxidative defense system in ameliorating the toxicity of ROS.

Infection of <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>in Humans and Livestock Animals: An Emerging Silent Threat for Bangladesh

Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular, zoonotic protozoan parasite that causes toxoplasmosis. It can potentially infect almost all mammalian and avian hosts including one-third of the human population world-wide. The major target group of the parasite includes immunocompromised patients (e.g. AIDS, cancer, organ transplantation) and fetus bearing pregnant women where it develops toxoplasmic encephalitis, myocarditis, chorioretinitis and abnormal fetal brain development or stillbirths respectively. In this review, we have presented the current status of T. gondii infection in livestock animals and human population in Bangladesh to assess the country-wide relative risk. Although exact prevalence is difficult to predict due to the scarcity of data, nevertheless existing literature suggests that 16% - 39% humans and 8% - 70% domestic animals are infected with T. gondii, which implies Bangladeshi population is at high risk of toxoplasmosis. Furthermore, we have proposed a potential area of research to decipher the genetic diversity and transmission routes of T. gondii infection into Bangladeshi population.

Food Functionality of Popular and Commonly Consumed Indigenous Vegetables and Fruits from Bangladesh

Functional food can be either natural or processed. Food contains known biologically active compounds, which provides clinically proven and documented health benefit. So far, no database is available in Bangladesh regarding the functionality of the indigenous foods. As a primary step, this study had been conducted with an aim to identify and characterize functionality of the indigenous foods of Bangladesh. Eight fruits and vegetables, which are very popular for their taste, price and easy availability, have been selected for in vitro screening of their functionality. High levels of fat and sugar binding capacity were observed in Pineapple (500% and 270.891% respectively). High nuplli mortality rate was found in cytotoxicity test with Pomelo extract (100%), which also contained high level of vitamin C (155 mg/100g). Pomelo contained the highest level of antioxidant among all these foods (0.674 nMol/100μl/mg protein). Red amaranth contained highest amount of protein (4.31 g/100g). In stem amaranth, Iron level was highest (1855.67 mg/kg). Total phenolics content of Water spinach and Stem amaranth were found higher than the other samples (59.339 and 55.728 mg GAE/g respectively). All these experiments showed these vegetables and fruits have high health impacts and can be act as potential functional foods.

Serologic Detection of <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>in Cat Owners Residing at Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh

Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic protozoan that can infect any warm-blooded mammal. T. gondii infects about one-third of the human population on the planet. Infection with the parasite in human causes toxoplasmosis that may pose a high risk in immunocompromised individuals under certain clinical conditions. Cats are the ultimate hosts of T. gondii where oocysts are formed through mating of male and female gametes. Infected cats can expel T. gondii oocysts in their feces, and thereby capable of pass on a disease to humans and other animals through consumption of foods, vegetables and water that are polluted with cat feces. The study was conducted to detect the presence of anti-T. gondii IgM and IgG antibodies in the blood of individuals with or without cat contact to determine if there is any relationship between cat contacts and T. gondii infection in humans. To address this, we enrolled subjects who contacted with the cat as target group and individuals with no cat contact as control group. Following register of different demographic data (including age, sex, education, foods habit, income status, etc.), whole blood from each enrolled subject of both the target group and control group was collected for serum preparation. T. gondii infected subjects were detected by Toxo Rapid test kit through identifying anti-T. gondii IgM and IgG antibodies in their serum. We found that only three out of twenty subjects who were in contact with cat showed positive IgG response while IgM antibody response was absent for all subjects. When compared with the data from control group, we did not find any significant association (p = 0.33) of cat contact with the transmission of T. gondii into human. However, with this small number of study subjects, we cannot conclusively say that there is no impact of cat contact on the transmission of T. gondii into human. Whether any association exists or not can be ascertained with a large number of subjects from different areas of Bangladesh in a future study in the population.

Analysis of Proteotranscriptomics Landscape Reveals Differentially Regulated Pathways in Toxoplasma gondii Infected Mouse Liver

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) an intracellular protozoan parasite, infects mammals including human population world-wide. Upon primary infection, the parasite contributes to mild flu like symptoms in immune competent host, but life threatening complication is seen in immune compromised patients and in pregnant women. Understanding the host-parasite interaction is critical for understanding the pathogenesis and biology parasite reactivation in the host. In this study, we used proteotrasncriptomics analyses by integrating the transcriptomics and proteomics data of T. gondii infected mouse liver to uncover the effector molecules responsible for disease pathogenesis that can be used as candidate markers for diagnosis and drug target. With this aim, we systematically integrated transcriptomicand proteomic data, representing the parasite infected mouse liver. Out of 2758 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 301 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs), 159 overlapping genes were identified. Among them, 86 genes were upregulated and 72 were downregulated in their respective mRNA and protein levels in the infected condition. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis revealed that the upregulated genes were mostly associated with immune system processes whereas the downregulated genes were involved in oxidation-reduction process and metabolism of lipid, and fatty acids. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis uncovered an interaction-hub including, Psmb8, Psmb9 and Tap1 for upregulated proteins and Cyp1A2, Cyp4A10 and Cyp3A11 for down-regulated proteins. Further studies are needed to validating these effector molecules. These molecules are likely to play a vital role in disease pathogenesis, as well as can be used as potential diagnostic marker and drug target candidates.

Investigation of the Potential Association between Clustered Regularly Interspersed Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and Antibiotic Resistance Pattern of Bacterial Strains Isolated from Medical Waste and Environmental Water

Enterobacteriaceae are important human pathogens that cause many food and waterborne illness. Rapid emergence of multi-drug resistant bacteria in Bangladesh has become a serious problem. Phage-host interaction is now considered as the major driving force for the conversion of non-pathogenic bacteria to pathogenic ones. Evolution of highly pathogenic and antibiotic resistant bacteria largely depends upon the horizontal gene transfer by means of plasmid, megaplasmid and bacteriophages. Conversely, bacteria may acquire a novel defence mechanism called CRISPR (Clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats) that can restrict horizontal transfer of plasmids and bacteriophages to limit the spread of antibiotic resistance genes among bacterial species. In this study, twenty bacterial strains were isolated from water of different medical waste and Buriganga river. Therefore, CRISPR locus was investigated following various biochemical and molecular analysis of those bacterial isolates. Identification of the bacterial isolates was conducted by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) based assay of 16S rDNA extracted from those isolated strains. Results indicated that most strains were identified as Proteus mirabilis and Citrobacter freundii which mainly cause septicemia, and pneumonia in human. Thereafter, antibiogram of these strains was performed by using 11 different antibiotic discs where bacterial isolates from medical drainage system showed more resistant to antibiotics than the river water. In this study, CRISPR locus was also investigated within the genome of the isolated bacterial stains but unexpectedly, we did not find any CRISPR locus in their genome. In conclusion, we confirm that multi-drug resistant bacterial strains are devoid of CRISPR locus suggesting a possible negative association between CRISPR locus and antibiotic resistance. Further studies to pinpoint are required to elucidate the underlying mechanism of the association between CRISPR and antibiotic resistance in these isolated strains.