Review of Albanian studies suggests the need for further efforts to counteract significant hepatitis B virus prevalence

BACKGROUND Hepatitis B virus(HBV)is categorized as one of the smallest enveloped DNA viruses and is the prototypical virus of the Hepatoviridae family.It is usually transmitted through body fluids such as blood,semen,and vaginal secretions.The majority(more than 95%)of immunocompetent adults infected with HBV spontaneously clear the infection.In the context of the high prevalence of HBV infection in Albania,the research gap is characterized by the lack of studies aimed at advancing the current understanding and improving the prevailing situation.The main objective of this study was to address the low rate of HBV diagnosis and the lack of a comprehensive national program to facilitate widespread diagnosis.AIM To analyze the prevalence of HBV infection in Albania and elucidate the persistently high prevalence despite efforts and measures implemented.METHODS Using a systematic literature review,we collected existing research on the epidemiology of HBV in Albania from PubMed,Cochrane Library,Google Scholar,and Albanian Medical Journals,focusing on studies published after the 1980s and conducted solely in the Albanian population.RESULTS The findings reveal a dynamic shift in HBV prevalence in Albania over several decades.Initially high,the prevalence gradually declined following the implementation of screening and vaccination programs.However,the prevalence rates have remained notably high,exceeding 8%in recent years.Contributing factors include vertical transmission,inadequate healthcare infrastructure,and challenges in screening and diagnosis.Studies among Albanian refugees in neighboring countries also reported high prevalence rates,emphasizing the need for transnational interventions.Despite advancements in screening,vaccination,and healthcare infrastructure,Albania continues to face a substantial burden of HBV infection.CONCLUSION The persistence of high prevalence underscores the complexity of the issue,requiring ongoing efforts to ensure a comprehensive understanding and effective mitigation.Addressing gaps in vaccination coverage,improving access to screening and diagnosis,and enhancing public awareness are crucial steps toward reducing HBV prevalence in Albania.

An Overview of Industrial Source Discharges into Water in the Albanian Territory

Direct and indirect discharges are released in the environment by many economic entities which operate in the territory of Albania.Different installations release many substances from separated sources or widespread,affecting the environmental quality and often causing pollution.Each economic entity that discharges substances in the environment is equipped with an environmental permit which is granted according to a system composed by two categories,A and B.Each Albanian citizen has the right guaranteed by the constitution to collect information regarding the city or country environmental conditions by this system.Furthermore,this system provides data regarding the state of the environment,polluting activity,different chemical components discharged,etc.The purpose of this study is to identify different sources of industrial discharge into water bodies,aiming to provide information that can be useful for the environmental protection,its preservation and improvement,the prevention and reduction of risks related to human and animal health and the improvement of the life quality.Data gained from the identification of economic entities equipped with an active environmental permit type A and B showed the various sources of waste discharges in the Albanian territory.The study was conducted using the QKB(National Business Center)database for a period of eight years from 2014 to 2022.Data show that an increase of technical unit discharging substances into water has increased over years due to a major number of installations of polluting economic entities in the country territory.

Discovery and Significance of Diamonds and Moissanites in Chromitite within the Skenderbeu Massif of the Mirdita Zone Ophiolite,West Albania

In recent years diamonds and other unusual minerals （carbides, nitrides, metal alloys and native elements） have been recovered from mantle peridotites and chromitites （both high-Cr chromitites and high-Al chromitites） from a number of ophiolites of different ages and tectonic settings. Here we report a similar assemblage of minerals from the Skenderbeu massif of the Mirdita zone ophiolite, west Albania. So far, more than 20 grains of microdiamonds and 30 grains of moissanites （SIC） have been separated from the podiform chromitite. The diamonds are mostly light yellow, transparent, euhedral crystals, 200-300μm across, with a range of morphologies; some are octahedral and cuboctahedron and others are elongate and irregular. Secondary electron images show that some grains have well-developed striations. All the diamond grains have been analyzed and yielded typical Raman spectra with a shift at -1325 cm^-1. The moissanite grains recovered from the Skenderben chromitites are mainly light blue to dark blue, but some are yellow to light yellow. All the analyzed grains have typical Raman spectra with shifts at 766 cm^-1, 787 cm^-1, and 967 cm^-1. The energy spectrums of the moissanites confirm that the grains are composed entirely of silicon and carbon. This investigation expands the occurrence of diamonds and moissanites to Mesozoic ophiolites in the Neo-Tethys. Our new findings suggest that diamonds and moissanites are present, and probably ubiquitous in the oceanic mantle and can provide new perspectives and avenues for research on the origin of ophiolites and podiform chromitites.

Diamonds Discovered from High–Cr Podiform Chromitites of Bulqiza,Eastern Mirdita Ophiolite,Albania

Various combinations of diamond, moissanite, zircon, corundum, rutile and titanitehave been recovered from the Bulqiza chromitites. More than 10 grains of diamond have been recovered, most of which are pale yellow to reddish–orange to colorless. The grains are all 100–300 μm in size and mostly anhedral, but with a range of morphologies including elongated, octahedral and subhedral varieties. Their identification was confirmed by a characteristic shift in the Raman spectra between 1325 cm-1 and 1333 cm-1, mostly at 1331.51 cm-1 or 1326.96 cm-1. This investigation extends the occurrence of diamond and moissanite to the Bulqiza chromitites in the Eastern Mirdita Ophiolite. Integration of the mineralogical, petrological and geochemical data of the Bulqiza chromitites suggests their multi–stage formation. Magnesiochromite grains and perhaps small bodies of chromitite formed at various depths in the upper mantle, and encapsulated the ultra–high pressure, highly reduced and crustal minerals. Some oceanic crustal slabs containing the magnesiochromite and their inclusion were later trapped in suprasubduction zones, where they were modified by tholeiitic and boninitic arc magmas, thus changing the magnesiochromite compositions and depositing chromitite ores in melt channels.

Epidemiology of hepatitis B virus infection in Albania

AIM： To assess the prevalence and socio-demographic distribution of hepatitis B virus （HBV） infection in Albania. METHODS： Blood samples from 410 unselected schoolboys, 666 students, 500 military personnel, 1286 casual blood donors, 378 voluntary blood donors and 640 pregnant women （total 3880 non-vaccinated residents of rural and metropolitan areas from all over Albania; 2354 （60.7%） male and 1526 （39.3%） female; mean age of 26.3 years） were tested during 2004-2006 for hepatitis B surface antigen （HBsAg） and antibodies to hepatitis B virus （anti-HBs） by ELISA. RESULTS： The HBsAg and anti-HBs prevalence were 9.5% and 28.7%, respectively. The highest HI3sAg prevalence was evident in the younger age group, such as in schoolchildren （11.8%） and the military （10.6%）. Consequently, the anti-HBs prevalence increased with age, from 21.2% in schoolchildren （mean age： 15.7 years）, to 36.3% in pregnant women （mean age： 26.3 years） and 29.7% in voluntary blood donors （mean age： 40.1 years）. There were no significant differences between males and females. CONCLUSION： Despite the estimated two-fold reduction of HBsAg prevalence in the general population from about 18%-19% to 9.5%, Albania remains a highly endemic country （i.e. over 8% of HBsAg prevalence rate）.

Petrology and PGE Abundances of High-Cr and High-Al Podiform Chromitites and Peridotites from the Bulqiza Ultramafic Massif, Eastern Mirdita Ophiolite, Albania

The Bulqiza ultramafic massif, which is part of the eastern Mirdita ophiolite of northern Albania, is world renowned for its high-Cr chromitite deposits. High-Cr chromitites hosted in the mantle section are the crystallized products of boninitic melts in a supra-subduction zone(SSZ). However,economically important high-Al chromitites are also present in massive dunite of the mantle-crust transition zone(MTZ). Chromian-spinel in the high-Al chromitites and dunites of the MTZ have much lower Cr~# values(100 Cr/(Cr+Al))(47.7-55.1 and 46.5-51.7, respectively) than those in the high-Cr chromitites(78.2-80.4), harzburgites(72.6-77.9) and mantle dunites(79.4-84.3). The chemical differences in these two types of chromitites are reflected in the behaviors of their platinum-group elements(PGE).The high-Cr chromitites are rich in IPGE relative to PPGE with 0.10-0.45 PPGE/IPGE ratios, whereas the high-Al chromitites have relatively higher PPGE/IPGE ratios between 1.20 and 7.80. The calculated melts in equilibrium with the high-Cr chromitites are boninitic-like, and those associated with the high-Al chromitites are MORB-like but with hydrous, oxidized and TiO-poor features. We propose that the coexistence of both types of chromitites in the Bulqiza ultramafic massif may indicates a change in magma composition from MORB-like to boninitic-like in a proto-forearc setting during subduction initiation.

Local Knowledge on Plants and Domestic Remedies in the Mountain Villages of Peshkopia(Eastern Albania)

Ethnobotanical studies in the Balkans are crucial for fostering sustainable rural development in the region and also for investigating the dynamics of change of Traditional Ecological Knowledge(TEK),which has broad-sweeping implications for future biodiversity conservation efforts.A survey of local botanical and medical knowledge and practices was conducted in four mountainous villages of the Peshkopia region in northeast Albania,near the Macedonian border.Snowball sampling techniques were employed to recruit 32 informants for participation in semi-structured interviews regarding the use of the local flora for food,medicinal,veterinary and ritual purposes.The uses of 84 botanical taxa were recorded as well as a number of other folk remedies for the treatment of both humans and livestock.Comparison of the collected data with another ethnobotanical field study recently conducted among Albanians living on the Macedonian side of Mount Korab shows a remarkable divergence in medicinal plant uses,thus confirming the crucial role played by the history of the last century in transforming TEK.Most noteworthy,as a legacy of the Communist period,a relevant number of wild medicinal taxa are still gathered only for trade rather than personal/familial use.This may lead to unsustainable exploitation of certain taxa(i.e.Orchis and Gentiana spp.) and presents some important conservation challenges.Appropriate development and environmental educational frameworks should aim to reconnect local people to the perception of limitation and renewability of botanical resources.

Hepatitis B markers and vaccination-induced protection rate among Albanian pregnant women in Greece

Hepatitis B has long been a serious public health problem both in Greece and in Albania.In the February 2009 issue of World Journal of Gastroenterology,Resuli et al presented the interesting epidemiological data concerning hepatitis B virus infection in Albania.The results of this study were discussed and several data from our similar research were provided.

Enabling Sustainable Management of Non Wood Forest Products in South East Europe-Albania＇s Experience

The paper sheds light on the factors enabling sustainable development of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants （MAPs） of Albania; socio-economic, legal and regulatory aspects and institutional capacity related to the MAP sector in the country; sector dynamics, challenges and opportunities; and Albania＇s positioning in the world markets. Stewardship of MAPs natural base in the country remains a challenge as approximately 95% of the MAPs are collected from the wild. Albania continues to be the leader in Sage exports to the US market accounting for 49% of its market share. Statistical data and direct communication with MAP relevant stakeholders reveal that there is a great demand for the Albanian MAPs from the EU and US markets. However, as clearly indicated in this paper, increased competitiveness of this sector in the world markets should be preceded by sustainable management of the MAPs which can be achieved through （1） continuous training and education of the MAP value chain members prior to harvesting season, （2） organic production and （3） commercial cultivation of MAPs. This paper highlights that sustainable management and sector development require combined efforts of all sector stakeholders in an attempt of all respecting Mother Nature＇s generosity, and if harvesting as living forever.

Origin of the Diamonds within Chromitite from the Mirdita Ophiolite(Albania) and its Geological Significance

Geophysical investigations and laboratory experiments show evidence for possible subduction of ancient oceanic crust.Geological and mineralogical observations suggest that subducted oceanic crust is recycled into the upper mantle.The subduction is supported by the recovery of superdeep diamonds from kimberlites and the presence of crustal materials in ophiolitic chromitites and their host peridotites.What is the mechanism?Here we report the new discovery of ophiolite-hosted diamonds in the podiform chromitites within the Skenderbeu massif from the Mirdita ophiolite in the western part of Neo-Tethys(Fig.1).The diamonds are characterized by exceedingly light C isotopes(δ13CPDB^-25‰),which can be interpreted as evidence for subduction of organic carbon from Earth’s surface.The diamonds are also characterized by an exceptionally large range inδ15Nair(-12.9‰to+25.5‰),accompanied by a low N aggregation state(Fig.2).On the other hand,materials sparsely included in diamonds include amorphous material,Ni-Mn-Co alloy,nanocrystals(20 nm×20 nm)of calcium silicate with an orthorhombic perovskite structure(Ca-Pv),and fluids(Fig.3).We consider that the Skenderbeu diamonds nucleated and grew from a C-saturated,NiMnCo-rich melt derived from a subducted slab of ocean crust and lithosphere in the deep mantle environment.The environment is in the diamond stability field or near the top of the mantle transition zone.The new discovery of diamonds from the Mirdita ophiolite provides a valuable opportunity to understand deep cycling of subducted oceanic crust and mantle(i.e.,composition and process).

Multi-stage Process of the Bulqiza Chromitites, Eastern Ophiolitic Belt, Albania

The ultramafic massif of Bulqiza,which belongs to the eastern ophiolitic belt of Albania,is the most important area for metallurgical chromitite ores.The massif consists of a thick(>4 km)rock sequence,with a generalized

Micro-XRF Investigation of Decoration Materials and Painting Techniques in Three 18th-19th Century Mosques in Berat, Albania

We will present here the data obtained from the examination with micro-XRF of a series of micro samples taken from the decorations of three mosques in Berat, Albania. These are parts of an Islamic religious complex situated at the central area of the old town and include the “Helvetia Tekke”, the King’s Mosque and the Bachelors’ Mosque, which were built or reconstructed during the second half of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. Beside the architectural values of the buildings, the interiors of the monuments are decorated with paintings of the walls and the ceilings made of carved wood. The results of the measurements indicate that the preparation layer of the paintings on wooden ceilings was made of gypsum while that of the wall paintings was made of calcium carbonate. The palette includes the following inorganic pigments: lead white, gold, yellow and red ochre, vermilion, red lead, a copper based green, smalt and probably carbon black at Helvetia Tekke;green earth, yellow ochre, red ochre, red lead and cinnabar at Bachelors’ Mosque and red lead, orpiment and Indigo should have used for the original decorations of the ceilings in King Mosque, which are later overpainted with traditional pigments like yellow and red ochre, prussian blue and other modern pigments. Organic pigments, probably indigo and carbon black should have been used for the blue and black color. Similarities and differences observed between the monuments and indications about the painting technique as well as the degradation of some pigments will also be discussed.

Groundwater Geochemistry of the Fushe Kuqe Aquifer,North-Western Albania

The Fushe Kuqe costal aquifer is a typical confined alluvial aquifer.The aquifer medium consists of alternating and discontinuous layers of gravel and sand-gravel and silt-clay impermeable layers which have conditioned its multilayer character.The aquifer recharge occurs mainly through water infiltration from the Mat river in the North,and from Droja river in the South,while its natural discharge proceeds to the Adriatic sea.TDS(Total Solids Dissolved)concentration varies from 200-500 mg/L in the North-Eastern area up to over 1,000 mg/L near the coastal area.Such a wide range of TDS values is also confirmed by high(11.89° dH)value of its standard deviation.The HCO3-Ca-Mg and HCO3-Mg-Ca hydrochemical water types dominate in the eastern-north-eastern aquifer sectors,Na-Mg-HCO3-Cl,Na-Cl-HCO3 type in central-western area and,finally,Na-Cl type along the coastal parts of the aquifer.Dissolution of carbonates and sulphate minerals and silicate weathering seems to be the primary processes for the formation of the chemical composition of the groundwater.Chloro-Alkaline Indices CAI-1 and Chadha’s classification diagram distinguished two groundwater compositional groups derived from water-medium chemical reactions and fresh groundwater-seawater mixture,respectively.

A Preliminary Geochemical and Isotopic Appraisal of Sea Water Intrusion in the Fushe Kuqe Aquifer(Northwestern Albania)

The Fushe Kuqe costal aquifer is a typical confined alluvial aquifer.The aquifer medium consists of sand-gravel and silt-clay layers intercalation which gave it a multilayer character.The aquifer recharge occurs mainly by water infiltration from the Rver Mat in the North,and from River Droja in the South.The water flow direction is from northeast to southwest and from southeast to northwest,discharging to the Adriatic Sea.Based on the chloride and TDS(Total Solids Dissolved)content in groundwater,an advancement of sea water intrusion into aquifer was evidenced.The direction of sea water wedge is from coastal south-western sectors towards the north-eastern ones.Sample No.6,8,9 and 10 show chloride concentrations over 100 mg/L and Na/Cl ratios less than 0.86 implying that the groundwater is impacted by sea water intrusion.SR(Simpson Ratio)values of 1.15 and 1.09 for water sample No.8 and 10 are indications of a slight seawater influence,while groundwater of sample no.6 and 9 have SR values of 6.02 and 12.35 which are typical for a highly contamination by sea water.All the points of sampled groundwater fall above the GMWL,indicating that they have suffered a preliminary evaporation before entering the aquifer,likely in the hydropower lakes of Ulza and Shkopet upstream the River Mat course.Despite the narrow range ofδ18O andδ2H values(-6.80‰to-8.00‰and-54.00‰to 42.00‰,respectively),the points of sample No.6,8,9,10 fall on the fresh water-seawater mixing line,indicating the influence of the seawater intrusion.

Some Charophyta （Charales） from Coastal Temporary Ponds in Velipoja Area （North Albania）

Charophytes or stoneworts constitute a group of macrophytes that occur mostly in fresh-water environments but can also be found in brackish waters. Knowledge about stoneworts in Albania is still scarce and incomplete. According to published data on charoflora of Albania, there are 24 species and four genera known from different freshwater habitats. The present work is based on plant material sampled from 5 slightly brackish-water temporary ponds in the coastal area of Velipoja （north Albania）. During spring and summer of 2013-2015, field surveys were carried out with the main purpose of filling knowledge gaps concerning brackish water charophytes. Altogether seven species were identified： four typical of brackish water habitat （Chara baltica, Chara canescens, Chara galioides and Chara connivens） and three of broader tolerance （ Chara aspera, Chara vulgaris and Tolypella glomerata）. The first three species, which considered as the rarest and most threatened on the Balkans were found for the first time in Albania.

The Actual Trends of Olive Growing in Albania

The olive tree （Olea Europaea） owns the status of national patrimony in Albania. In the past, olive plantations were dictated by Agricultural Policies, where olive trees were cultivated mainly in marginal lowland areas and hills. The highest efficiency in olive production is reached mainly in the Southern and Central regions of the country. After 1990s, olive farming has been highly impacted due to shifts in the economic system. Its interest in the economical aspect is going to be very important in the near future. The government has developed a national scheme for the intensification of olive farming by increasing the planted area by 60,000 ha, or in total to 20 million olive trees. Our study presents an overall view of actual trends of olive farming, olive industry, subsequent environmental problems resulting from farming and olive mills by-products, and finally the role that the government has to play in that sector,

Morpho-structural Features and Structural Classification of Chromite Pods in the Tropoje-Has Ophiolite Massif, Albania

Tropoje-Has ophiolitic massif of eastern Mirdita(Albania)ophiolitic belt,is a major source for metallurgical chromite ore in Albania.Massif consists of a thick mantle section of SSZ type,8-10 km thick and

Small and Medium Enterprises Environment Case of Albania

Small and Medium Enterprises （SMEs） play an important role in all economies and are key generators of employment, earnings, and economic growth stimulators. In Albania, small and medium enterprises represent 99.6 percent of all registered business entities and are the main source in providing employment （Enhancing SME Development in Albania： A Study on Macro-Financial Soundness Indicators, 2011）. The aim of this study is to give a short description on the situation of the small and medium enterprises in Albania, giving more focus on the problem faced and the role of the Albanian government on this process. A descriptive analysis is carried out using secondary sources. This study will be a reference for any future study that will be focused on the identification and assessment of factors affecting the SME＇s performance and the examination of relationship between fmancial institutions and SMEs growth.

Listeria monocytogenes in Live Mytillis galloprovincialis Collected from Butrinti Lagoon Located in South Part of Albania

In 2009, 201 samples of live bivalve mussels （Mytillus galloprovincialis） were analyzed for presence of Listeria monocytogenes. The samples were collected from three sampling points （BM l-south, BM l-north and BMl-west） in Butrinti lagoon located in the south of Albania. The examination confirmed incidence of this pathogen with average value 4.5%. Based on the results, high incidence was reported in winter with 6.7% of analyzed samples. The incidence of L. monocytogenes was also reported respectively in spring of 2009 with 4.35% and in autumn with 2.3% of controlled samples. There is no big difference in values of incidence of L. monocytogenes between summer and autumn. The northern part of the lagoon was more indicated by contamination of L. monocytogenes. Examination of 67 samples of M. galloprovincialis, collected in the northern part of this lagoon, showed five cases or about 7.5% of them to be confirmed as positive. Referring to the study results, periodic controls of the sea products, particularly of live bivalve mollusks, for presence ofL. monocytogenes remains a necessary objective of food inspection in Albania.

Incidence of Coagulase Positive Staphylococcus aureus in Raw Cow Milk Produced by Cattle Farms in Fieri Region in Albania

One hundred and five raw cow milk samples were collected from cattle farms located in Fieri from 2007 to 2009 and have been analyzed for presence of coagulase positive Staphylococcus aureus. Nineteen samples were confirmed positive for the presence of this pathogen. Stapylococcus aureus isolates identified appeared typically and atypically characteristics of growth colonies in Baird Parker agar plates at 37°C for 24-48 h. 6 out of 19 strains showed typical characteristics and 13 out 19 （68%） isolates had atypical characteristics. Coagulase positive Staphylococcus aureus was found in 18% （1911 05） of fresh milk samples. Milk produced by cows with subclinical mastitis largely influences Staphylococcus aureus count of bulk tank milk than contamination of milking and milk handling equipment by this pathogen. All S. aureus isolates were coagulase positive. 5 （or about 25%） of isolates of S. aureus identified were resistant to penicillin, 7 out 19 isolates or 36% resistant to methicilin and 9 out 19 strains or 47% resistant to vancomycin. Another objective of this study was the evaluation of the number of S. aureus per mL raw milk. The results confirmed that II （57.8%） out of 19 positive cases had more than 100 cfu/mL, indicating a possible risk for intoxication caused by production of entertoxines of coagulase positive S. aureus.