Preliminary Palynostratigraphic Data on the Middle Albian-Lower Cenomanian of the Tarfaya Basin, Southwest Morocco

The Tarfaya-Laayoune-Boujdour basin is of great interest to oil exploration;on this aspect, there has been exploration by the Moroccan National Office of Hydrocarbons and Mining, which has shown indices of oil and/or gas recorded in most wells drilled in the Moroccan Atlantic margin. FD-1 well, object of this study, is one of these wells located in the offshore Tarfaya-Laayoune-Boujdour basin. A palynological examination of the processed samples revealed the existence of organic palynomorphs, well conserved and rich in dinoflagellate cysts. The latter are composed of worldwide marker taxa of high stratigraphic resolutions. Thus, the middle upper Albian (3408 - 3408.5 m) is determined by the presence of Cribroperidinium tensiftense, Tehamadinium coummia, Spiniferella cornuta, Chichaouadinium vestitum, Dinopterygium alatum and Litosphaeridium arundum. The upper Albian (3406.5 - 3408 m) is characterized by the FOs of marker taxa: Cyclonephelium chabaca, Cribroperidinium auctificum and Chichaouadinium vestitum. Lastly, the upper Albian-lower Cenomanian transition is defined between 3404 m and 3406.50 m, as suggested by the FOs of Chichaouadinium boydii, Dinopterygium tuberculatum, Sepispinula ancorifera, Litosphaeridium conispinum, Prolixosphaeridium conulum and Xenascus ceratioides.

Geological Interpretation and Identification of Albian-Aged Petroleum Prospects in Block A, San Pedro Margin (Côte d’Ivoire)

The study aims to identify Albian-age oil prospects in Block A of the San Pedro margin, Côte d’Ivoire, by conducting a detailed geological interpretation. The objective is to confirm the presence of oil reservoirs trapped by favorable geological structures, identifiable through geophysical and seismic methods. The methodological approach is based on a combined analysis of studies and seismic data. Drilling data from well PA, including well logs and end-of-well reports, were used to characterize the lithological formations encountered, particularly those of the Albian. 3D seismic profiles were interpreted to identify structures conducive to hydrocarbon accumulation. Isochrone, isovelocity, and isobath maps were developed to refine the interpretation. Sedimentological analyses revealed five sandy/gritty levels between 2610 m and 3100 m, interspersed with clay, limestone, and siltstone beds. The seismic profiles highlighted two main prospects. These prospects exhibit favorable geological structures, including normal faults and structural traps that provide oil traps.

莱阳盆地Albian阶林家庄——辛格庄组古环境演变沉积地球化学记录

胶莱盆地是一白垩系发育较为完整的陆相含火山地层沉积盆地。白垩系中发现有大量恐龙骨骼、恐龙蛋,以及其它动植物化石,是研究陆相白垩纪古环境演变的重要地区。本文通过对胶莱盆地莱阳洼陷Albian阶林家庄组—辛格庄组地层沉积特征、碳酸盐碳氧同位素组成(δ^(13)C,δ^(18)O)、色度(L^(*),a^(*),b^(*))、碳酸盐含量、TOC含量,以及风化指数(CIA)、古气候指数(C)等古环境指标的综合分析,反映出Albian阶古气候从早期偏冷干逐渐过渡到半干旱-半湿润状态。古气候总体上温暖湿润,但也存在多次气候波动特征。偏重的碳同位素组成与OAEs事件有较好的对应关系,表明胶莱盆地在白垩纪时期陆相地层与海相地层之间存在一定的对比关系。碳酸盐碳、氧同位素组成特征表明,高浓度大气CO_(2)可能是这两者之间联系的纽带。林家庄组—辛格庄组地层碳同位素组成显示,陆相地层中OAE1c至少由3次次级旋回组成,代表了气候的不稳定性和复杂性。

下刚果盆地A区块下白垩统Albian阶沉积层序与古地理演化

通过对西非被动大陆边缘下刚果盆地中的A区块沉积相和层序地层分析,确定Albian阶主要为一套具"间断-交叉"混积机理的碳酸盐岩混杂陆源砂、泥沉积,可划分出5个三级层序,经历了从混积缓坡→周缘混积台地→破裂混积台地→深水混积陆棚→深海盆地(深水扇)的沉积演化全过程,对应于威尔逊构造旋回中后裂谷拗陷阶段向大陆漂移的过渡阶段,其中发育主力储、产层的SQ2-SQ3层序为Ⅱ型周缘混积-破裂台地沉积层序,可进一步划分为TST和HST两个体系域。解析了混积碳酸盐岩层序地层与沉积充填响应特征,建立了研究区混积碳酸盐岩"滑脱-盐拱-转换"多因素联控的沉积演化模式,提出SQ3层序时期的盐拱构造顶部呈帚状分布和垂向偏转加积发育的破裂混积台缘浅滩为最有利的储集微相类型;以TST和HST体系域作为编图单元,编制了SQ2和SQ3层序各体系域的岩相古地理图并探讨了有利储集相带展布规律,认为A区块Albian阶SQ2-HST、SQ3-TST和SQ3-HST三个体系域中预测出的叠置台缘浅滩,应成为今后的勘探重点。

下刚果盆地下白垩统Albian阶碳酸盐台地地震沉积学

在构造-沉积模式理论指导下,综合利用钻井岩心、测井和三维地震资料,探讨下刚果盆地下白垩统Albian阶碳酸盐岩沉积体系的地震沉积学特征及有利储层发育相带的空间展布和演化规律,为有利区块预测和勘探目标优选提供地质依据。结果表明:下刚果盆地A区块及邻区Albian阶可归纳出3种混积相和6种亚相及更多的微相类型;在建立混积相沉积模式的基础上,确定了滩体生长期次、方向和古地貌高,明确了A区块及邻区块重点层段滩体发育演化规律,精细恢复了SQ2和SQ3层序沉积演化史,识别出各层序内部演化特征和有利储层发育相带分布规律。提出了井震一体化多尺度融合研究思路,系统建立了下刚果盆地Albian阶三维沉积动态演化模式,论证了"台沟控带、台缘控滩、滩控储层"的优势相带和储层发育机理。

西非塞内加尔盆地北部次盆早白垩世Albian期沉积相类型及展布特征

塞内加尔盆地是西非北部的裂谷—被动大陆叠合盆地。利用沉积学、测井及地震等方法,根据单井岩性特征及测井、地震资料,结合盆地被动大陆边缘的构造特征对Albian阶沉积相类型及展布特征进行分析及预测。结果表明:塞内加尔盆地北部次盆的南部与北部Albian期存在沉积特征差异,次盆南部为宽陆架、陡陆坡,以强制性海退陆架边缘三角洲、碳酸盐岩台地及下切谷供源的深水浊积扇沉积为主,强制性海退陆架边缘三角洲主要分布于冈比亚河附近,碳酸盐岩台地主要分布于达喀尔以南,且深水沉积体系比较发育;次盆北部陆架稍窄,陆坡较缓,发育强制性海退陆架边缘三角洲,主要分布在塞内加尔河与达喀尔之间,三角洲水道供源的深水浊积扇群较为发育,碳酸盐岩台地不发育。该结果为预测塞内加尔盆地北部次盆Albian阶深水浊积岩储层有利勘探区提供依据。

Terrestrial records of the early Albian Ocean Anoxic Event:Evidence from the Fuxin lacustrine basin,NE China

The early Albian Oceanic Anoxic Event 1 b(OAE 1 b) is well documented in the Tethys, Pacific and North Atlantic, but few studies have evaluated whether or not terrestrial records of OAE 1 b exist. In order to identify terrestrial records of the early Albian OAE 1 b and to infer possible driving mechanisms, an integrated multi-proxy study from the late Aptian to Albian in the Fuxin lacustrine basin was conducted,including thick, organic-rich black mudstones, total organic carbon(TOC), organic carbon isotopes(d13 Corg), mercury concentration(Hg) and results from pyrolysis analyses(S2, Tmaxand HI). Results show three distinct short-term negative d13 Corgexcursions corresponding with relatively high TOC values,which could be counterparts of the Kilian, Paquier and Leenhardt sub-events of the early Albian OAE1 b. Atmospheric CO2 concentration(p CO2) recovered from C3 plant d13 Corgcompositions indicates an increasing trend in Unit C during the early Albian, and there are three short-term increases of p CO2 corresponding to the three sub-events of OAE 1 b at this time interval. We infer that a trend of increasing p CO2 during the Kilian sub-event in the study area is closely related to volcanism. Continental weathering calculated using chemical weathering indices(CIA, WIP and MIA(O)) show an increasing trend during the OAE 1 b interval, likely resulting from warmer and more humid conditions. Mixed sources of terrestrial plants and lacustrine plankton demonstrated by pyrolysis analyses(HI vs. Tmaxand S2 vs. TOC), indicate a terrestrial contribution to the organic-rich sediments of the Kilian, Paquier and Leenhardt sub-events of OAE 1 b. We suggest that a CO2-forced greenhouse effect during the early Albian might have triggered the relatively warm and humid palaeoclimatic conditions, and intensified chemical weathering that combined to create high nutrient and organic matter levels that were flushed into lakes contributing to eutrophication and anoxia in lacustrine and in contemporaneous oceanic systems.

The Key Role of Aptian-Albian Marine Fossils from Eastern Heilongjiang in Marine-Nonmarine Stratigraphic Correlation

The alternating marine and nonmarine coal-bearing Lower Cretaceous successions are well developed in eastern Heilongjiang, northeastern China, including the Jixi Group in the west and the Longzhaogou Group in the east. The correlation of these two lithostratigraphic groups with the nonmarine Jehol Group is important for dating the exceptionally well-preserved Jehol Biota. The Early Cretaceous marine fossils recovered from eastern Heilongjiang include ammonites, bivalves, radiolarians, foraminifers and dinocysts. During the early Aptian transgression the ammonite fauna entered the Hulin and Mishan areas and the bivalve Aucellina fauna in the Jixi area. This enables correlation of the marine lower part of the Chengzihe Formation of the Jixi Group with the Qihulin Formation of the Longzhaogou Group.

Provenance and Tectonic Setting of Late Lower Cretaceous (Albian) Kazhdumi Formation Sandstones (SW Iran)

Provenance and tectonic setting of the Late Lower Cretaceous (Albian) sandstones in SW Iran have been interpreted on the basis of geochemistry (major and trace elements) of 35 samples from Iranian offshore oil fields (Soroosh, Nowrooz, Foroozan and Hendijan). Geochemically, trace-element concentrations, such as La, Th, Sc and Zr, and ratios, such as La/Sc, Th/Sc, La/Co, and Th/Co, of sandstones from Kazhdumi Formation at four localities indicate that they were derived from felsic source rocks and deposited in a passive continental margin. Most major and trace element contents of Kazhdumi sandstones are generally similar to upper continental crust (UCC) values. However, some samples are depleted in major and trace elements (such as K2O, Na2O, Sr and Ba) relative to UCC, which is mainly due to absence or smaller amount of Na-rich plagioclase and K-feldspar and also paucity of clay minerals, which is possibly due to intense weathering and recycling. Enrichments in Zr, negative Sr anomalies and Th/U ratios higher than 4 for Kazhdumi sandstones are further evidence for recycled sources. The study of paleoweathering conditions based on chemical index of weathering (CIW) indicates a moderate to intense weathering of first cycle sediments, or it may alternatively reflect recycling under semi-arid to semi-humid climate conditions in Kazhdumi sandstones. The results of this study suggest that the main source for the Kazhdumi sandstones is likely located in uplifted shoulders of a rifted basin (Neo-Tethys) in its post-rift stage (Arabian basement).

科特迪瓦盆地Albian阶下部沉积特征及展布

科特迪瓦盆地地处西非几内亚湾北部,是具有转换、被动大陆边缘叠置性质的复杂断陷盆地。伴随着西非深水油气勘探的热潮,以预测良好储层为目标,通过岩心、地震剖面、测井曲线以及录井资料,对科特迪瓦盆地下白垩统Albian阶下部沉积时期的沉积相类型及其展布进行系统研究。研究表明,Albian阶下部沉积时期属于盆地初始裂陷中期,北部物源供给充足,发育冲积扇相、扇三角洲相、湖泊相共3种沉积相类型。其中以湖泊相、扇三角洲相为主,冲积扇沉积仅发育在盆地北部边缘。该研究将为Albian阶储层评价及油气开发提供新的地质依据,也可为邻区塞内加尔盆地油气裂陷期勘探提供借鉴。

Albian－Campanian钙质超微化石描述生物地理学研究

本文以Ａｌｂｉａｎ－Ｃａｍｐａｎｉａｎ的钙质超微化石为例，介绍了一种描述生物地理学研究的新方法──运用计算机绘制化石种的分布图（包括平面图和立体图两种），并运用这一方法对该时间段的近２００个种进行了具体研究，归纳出六种分布类型，即：广布型，南半球分布型，北半球分布型，赤道海域缺失型，赤道海域分布型，迁移型。并且对每个种在这一时间段中的分布作了具体阐述。

Calibration of the Albian/Cenomanian Boundary by Ammonite Biostratigraphy:U.S.Western Interior

Calibration of numerical ages to the geological time scale is a long scientific pursuit that requires the integration of multiple data sets. A case study of the Albian/Cenomanian stage boundary, also the Lower/Upper Cretaceous series boundary, illustrates the calibration process. The numerical age of this boundary has shifted from 96 Ma to 99 Ma over a time span of nearly fifty years. Recalibration resulted first from improvements in radiometric dating, and later from inferences about ammonite phylogeny, and most recently from radiometric dates of newly discovered volcanic beds interbedded with diagnostic guide fossils. However, the calibration process continues with study of cosmopolitan dinoflagellates.

Using GIS and Geostatistical Techniques for Mapping Piezometry and Groundwater Quality of the Albian Aquifer of the M’zab Region, Algerian Sahara

The M’zab region is subject to an arid Saharan climate where surface and sub-surface waters are of little importance. The Albian Aquifer, commonly called Continental Intercalary (CI), main component of North Western Sahara Aquifer System (NWSAS/SASS), constitutes the most extensive aquifer formation of the region. In our study area, the CI is identified, as a regional subset, as the Albian Aquifer of M’zab Region (AAMR). Its groundwater resources are considered the only source available to meet the growing needs of drinking water supply, agriculture and industry. This aquifer is heavily exploited by a very large number of wells (more than 750). Its supply is very low, so it is a very low renewable layer. This requires periodic monitoring and control of its piezometric level and its physico- chemical quality. The objective of our study is to know the current state of this aquifer, while studying the variation of its piezometry for the period 2010-2018, and also the chemical quality of its groundwater by analyzing more than 90 samples over the entire study area. The application of geostatistics by kriging and the steps of analysis, modelling and calculation of semivariogram have enabled us to draw up maps of the various hydrogeological and hydrochemical parameters. As a result, twelve thematic maps were gridded using Geostatistical tools of ArcGIS software. The water-level-change map showed a significant drop in the groundwater level over the entire M’zab region and especially around the major cities (Ghardaïa, Berriane, Metlili and Zelfana) with more than 8 meters. Chemical analyses of the Albian groundwater in the study area show the dominance of evaporite facies (Cl--Na+-Ca2+) with low concentrations than the Algerian Standards for Drinking (ASD). All the water quality indices (WQI) that have been mapped reveal that the groundwater samples were suitable for drinking and irrigation with a high quality of water located in the south of the study area.

Global paleobiogeography of Albian—Cenomanian(mid-Cretaceous)marine ostracods

Despite their potential for providing important information for paleobiogeography,studies using ostracod assemblages compiled from global datasets have been scarce so far.In this study,the paleogeographic implications of the relationship between different ostracod assemblages are analyzed and discussed for the Albian and Cenomanian.We compiled an ostracod dataset at the genus level,with 168 genera for the Albian and 174 for the Cenomanian,to which different multivariate statistical methods of grouping were applied.The affinity between different ostracod assemblages from different regions allowed for the delineation of 30 operational geographic units(OGUs)for the Albian,and 32 OGUs for the Cenomanian,grouped in three paleobiogeographic units(PBUs;Megatethys,Persia,and Austral)and one sub-unit(PBSU;Maghreb associated to the Megatethys).The Maghreb PBSU showed minor changes between the Albian and Cenomanian.The relationship among the OGUs grouped in each PBU is related to different factors,such as eustatic sea level events,similar climatic zones,and marine current circulation patterns.A relationship was observed between the Gabon and Nigeria OGUs with the Persia PBU,which suggests a direct east—west connection between them during the Cenomanian.The affinity observed in the Austral PBU between the South American,South African,and Australian regions during the Albian can be explained by their relative geographic isolation due to the Walvis Ridge barrier.The eventual flooding of this barrier led to the relationship observed between the SE Brazilian and Bolivian regions with the Austral PBU.Finally,the data also suggested that the separation of the Indian subcontinent from the Austral PBU took place during the Cenomanian.

Geochemical characteristics and origins of natural gases in the eastern Cote d’Ivoire Basin,West Africa

The gas sources in the eastern Cote d’Ivoire Basin(Tano Basin)are seldom reported and remain controversial due to multiple sets of potential source rocks and poorly documented geochemical characteristics of natural gases.The marine source rock potential from the Upper Albian to Turonian as well as the molecular composition and the stable carbon isotope composition of natural gases in the eastern Cote d’Ivoire Basin were studied in detail to investigate the origins of natural gases.The total organic carbon(TOC),hydrogen index(HI),and generation potential(S_(1)+S_(2))of source rocks indicate that both sapropelic source rocks and humic source rocks developed during the late Albian,whereas sapropelic source rocks developed during the Cenomanian and the Turonian.The normal order ofδ^(13)CH_(4)<δ^(13)C_(2)H6<δ^(13)C_(3)H_(8)(δ^(13)C_(1)<δ^(13)C_(2)<δ^(13)C_(3)),the relationship between C_(2)/C_(3)molar ratio andδ^(13)C_(2)-δ^(13)C_(3),and the plot ofδ^(13)C_(1)versus C_(1)/(C_(2)+C_(3))collectively show that the natural gases are thermogenic due to the primary cracking of kerogen,including the typical oil-associated gases from Well D-1,the mixed oil-associated gases and coal-derived gases from Well G-1 and Well L-1.Based on the plot ofδ^(13)C_(1)versusδ^(13)C_(2)and the established relationship betweenδ^(13)C_(1)and equivalent vitrinite reflectance(Ro),we proposed that the natural gases are in a mature stage(Ro generally varies from 1.0%to 1.3%).Combined with results of basin modelling and oil-to-source correlation,the transitional to marine source rocks during the late Albian were thought to have made a great contribution to the natural gases.Our study will make a better understanding on petroleum system in the eastern Cote d’Ivoire Basin.

科特迪瓦盆地下白垩统阿尔布阶烃源岩地球化学特征及分布规律

科特迪瓦盆地是非洲重要的石油生产地之一,基于钻井、测井及地球化学资料综合分析,对区内白垩系湖相烃源岩进行了综合评价,利用有机碳法建立白垩系烃源岩总有机碳(total organic carbon,TOC)定量预测模型,厘定了烃源岩地震反射特征与地化特征的关系,并对主力烃源岩横向分布特征进行了研究。结果表明:下白垩统阿尔布阶烃源岩TOC均值为2.63%,以Ⅱ型干酪根为主,镜质体反射率(Ro)为0.3%~0.9%,主要处于低成熟-成熟阶段,整体属于好-优质烃源岩。优质烃源岩主要分布在盆地东部凹陷的中心区域,TOC值为4.00%~5.00%,发育厚度较大,连续性较好。

Radiolarian and Planktic Foraminifera Biostratigraphy of the Early Albian Organic Rich Beds of Fahdene Formation,Northern Tunisia

The lower part of Fahdene Formation outcropping in northeastern Tunisia is repre- sented by pelagic sequences and characterized by an important siliciclastic fraction that includes ra- diolarian and organic-rich beds of Allam Member. Litho-biostratigraphic analysis based on planktic foraminifera and radiolaria shows that deposition of organic-rich beds of Allam Member is confined to the Microhedbergella rischi Zone through the lower part of Ticinella primula Zone. Age diagnostic radiolaria recovered from these beds has been identified to constrain a direct age of black shale depo- sition. The assemblages can be correlated with the radiolarian biochronozone U.A.10-11 indicating an Early Albian to early Middle Albian in age. Radiolarian assemblages composed of species characteris- tic of U.A.10 biochronozone （A. montisserei, D. gracilis） are associated with radiolarian taxa belonging to Costata Zone （U.A.9 Pseudoeucyrtis hanni and Thanarla pseudodecora）, which can be correlated with Dercourt Member in the Ionian Zone and Paquier level of the Vocontian Basin （southeast of France）. Biostratigraphic and abundance curves analysis has demonstrated significant diversification of cryptocephalic Nassellaria and Archaeodictyomitrae, probably adapted to eutrophic conditions that characterized the Aptian-Albian transition. Ecological conditions may have governed the stratigraphic range of many cosmopolitan taxa （i.e., Pseudodictyomitrae lodogaensis） compared with stratigraphic distributions schemes reported from other domains. The timing of black shales deposition was dia- chronic due to local geodynamic conditions and upwelling currents distribution. The Allam black shales are correlative with the oceanic anoxic event OAElb which is characterized by the widespread of supraregionnally organic-rich beds in the Mediterranean Tethys basins across the Aptian-Albian transition.

Palynostratigraphy and palaeoenvironments around the Albian-Cenomanian boundary interval (OAEld), North Bulgaria

The palynological assemblages from two Albian-Cenomanian boundary sections in North Bulgaria are described. The samples analyzed yielded a diverse palynological content including dinoflagellate cysts and miospores. Based on dinocyst nutrient and productivity indices a phase of enhanced nutrient availability and high primary productivity is inferred for the latest Albian interval. The pronounced predominance of peridinioid dinocysts in this interval, namely O. verrucosum, O. scabrosum and especially P. infusorioides is considered to reflect eutrophic conditions. It coincides with the increased phosphorus mass accumulation occurring at the top part of the Upper Albian Dekov Formation. OAE ld is indicated in the Tolovitsa karst spring section, based on palynofacies dominated by high amounts of granular amorphous organic matter （AOM） related to anoxic environmental conditions. These sections serve as evidence suggesting a relationship between Cretaceous peridinioid cysts （including Palaeohystichphora infusorioides, Ovoidinium verrucosum, O. scabrosum） and anoxic/suboxic conditions and/or high primary productivity. The pollen spectrum inferred relatively stable vegetation patterns of surrounding continental areas during and after the AlbiardCenomanian boundary interval and the times of OAE ld formation. The hinterland vegetation integrated mainly pteridophyte spores and gymnosperms. The area was part of the Southern Laurasian floral province which was characterized by warm temperate to subtropical humid climate. Angiosperms were still minor part of this vegetation.

Carbon isotope composition and its implications of Lower Cretaceous Aptian-Albian shallow water carbonates in the Cuoqin Basin, North Tibet

The d 13C values of Lower Cretaceous Aptian-Albian platform-type carbonates in the Cuoqin Basin, North Tibet vary between 2.48 and 5.46. The mean value is 3.93. The values are not only provided with positive excursion, but also 1.17 higher than those of con-temporaneous pelagic carbonates which possess pretty high d 13C values. The origin is ap-proached. During the oceanic anoxic events, a great number of organisms were rapidly buried, causing the increase of the d 13C value of oceanic total dissolved carbon (TDC) and generally promoting the values of marine carbonates. After that, owing to the organisms undergoing dif-ferent isotopic fractionation in the paleo-ocean with stratified structure, d 13C values of shallow sea carbonate were obviously higher than those of pelagic carbonates.

Aptian–Albian Transition in Central Tunisia:Tectonosedimentary and Paleogeographic Records

The Aptian-Albian series are characterized, in Tunisia, by several variations in subsidence rates and records discrete unconformity between Albian and Aptian in central and southern Tunisia. In central Tunisia Upper Aptian regressions were sustained until the beginning of Albian with a low sea level stand. In this paper, wells data gathered from central Tunisia exposes well expressed Aptian-Albian hiatus associated to several partial sedimentary gaps, erosion surface and unconformities and correlated with the ＂Aptian Crisis＂ highlighted at the Tethyan scale. This latter is coeval with an extensional regime in concurrence with the African rifting responsible for halokinesis movements and magmatism and leaded to the establishment of paleoreliefs as much as tilted blocks and half grabens in central Tunisia. Deposition shows regional hiatus and lateral transition from platform facies to south to, open marine facies to the north. The structural configuration of this domain within normal faulting, horsts and grabens leaded to the establishment of several distinct basins with different subsidence rates. Discordances occur specially around and upward uplifted blocks and emerged land and are especially associated with Aptian reef, karsts and shallow marine facies. They are unconformably overlaid by the transgressive open marine facies of Albian-Cenomanian series acknowledged as source rock in Central Tunisia. In addition, the reefal Aptian facies is considered a potential reservoir rocks in central Tunisia and it is frequently associated to mineralization and Hydrocarbure reservoirs.