Investigation of fecal coliform and typical enteric virus in representative beaches of China

Through investigating ten recreational marine beaches in China, we aimed to detect the occurrence of human enteric viruses in coastal bathing beaches and find a correlationship, if any, between the presence of enteric viruses in surface seawater and the concentrations of fecal coliforms, the conventional indicator of fecal pollution. In this study, twenty seawater samples were assayed for fecal coliforms and human pathogenic enteric viruses （hepatitis A viruses, rotaviruses, polioviruses） analysis. Enteric viruses were detected by RT-PCR, in 20 sample sites, 5%, 40%, 40% were positive for the presence of human hepatitis A viruses, rotaviruses, polioviruses, respectively. Seven of 20 sites are suffering from severe fecal contamination, based on traditional plate counts of fecal coliform outnumbering the established thresholds for recreation. Additionally, statistical analysis presented that no correlation was found between bacterial indicators and viruses in surface seawaters. The data confirmed that indicator bacteria in water are not reflective of the presence of enteric viruses in marine waters. Thus, current recreational water quality standards of both bacterial and viral indices should be reevaluated.

Horizontal Distribution and Annual Variations of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in Luoyuan Bay

Fecal Coliform Bacteria （FCB） of marine waters was monitored in Luoyuan Bay from January, 2003 to December, 2005. The results showed that number of FCB in marine water samples ranged from no detection （ 〈2 cfu/100 mL） to 540 cfu/100 mL in Luoyuan Bay. Values of FCB during August to October were significantly higher than those during January to April during three year period. Monthly changes of FCB values at each year period were mainly due to monthly precipitation. In addition, compared with FCB values in difference sample sites, values of FCB in Bay-heed were significantly higher than those in middle of bay and Bay-mouth, Luoyuan Bay. However, values of FCB in Bay-mouth were significantly less than those in middle of bay. The ratios to the par of FCB in 2003, 2004, and 2005 years were 100%, 98.0%, and 97.9%, respectively. Therefore, we considered that the pollution of FCB of surface marine water in Luoyuan Bay was not serious.

Evaluation of media for simultaneous enumeration of total coliform and Escherichia coli in drinking water supplies by membrane filtration techniques

This study evaluated three different dehydrated media for simultaneous detection and enumeration of total coliform （TC） and Escherichia coil in drinking water samples with a standard membrane filtration procedure. The experiment indicated that the differential coliform agar （DCA） medium was the most effective among the tested media in enumerating TC and E. coil, without the need for extensive accompanying confirmation tests. The results for DCA medium were highly reproducible for both TC and E. coil with standard deviation of 6.0 and 6.1, respectively. A high agreement （82%） was found between DCA and m-Endo media on 152 drinking water samples in terms of TC positive. The DCA medium also reduced concealment of background bacteria.

Antimicrobial Resistant Coliforms in Tap Water with Low Free Residual Chlorine Levels in Two Hospitals: Case Study in Gaza, Palestine

Universal access to safe water, whether at households or health centres, is central to achieving the sixth sustainable development goal by 2030. A hospital-based survey was conducted to screen for antimicrobial resistance among coliforms in samples collected from tap water (n = 54) at surgical wards in Gaza and to investigate the association with free residual chlorine and pH levels. Total coliforms (TC) were detected in 48.1% (26/54) of tested samples and FCs were detected in 25.9% (14/54). Free residual chlorine test ranged from zero to 0.2 mg/l (average: 0.08 mg/l), of which more than half of the samples (53.7%) 29/54 showed no free residual chlorine. The mean value of free residual chlorine in samples tested positive for growth on m-Endo (0.03) was lower than the mean for negative samples (0.14). The pH values were within the acceptable range (average: 7.6) and there was a statistically significant variation between the mean of pH values for samples tested positive on m-Endo (7.29) and that tested negative (7.84). Among coliform positive samples, 23.1% (6/26) had coliform isolates with resistance patterns. More than two-thirds of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) isolates were resistant to amikacin, ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, and imipenem. Moreover, 50% of the isolates were resistant to piperacillin-tazobactam. One-third (33.3%) of isolates were resistant to cefoxitin, and fosfomycin, 16.7% were resistant to ciprofloxacin, and nitrofurantoin. Intermediate resistance was shown in 16.7% of the isolates to cefoxitin and ciprofloxacin. The ESBL and carbapenem resistance genes detected in isolates were TEM (66.7%), NDM (33.3%), OXA (25%), blaCTXM (16.7%), and blaCTXM-3 (16.7%). The finding highlighted the level of contamination with AMR coliform in samples collected from tap water and pointed out the importance of managing water safety through identifying the main source of contamination, in addition to maintaining proper water disinfection at healthcare facilities for the patient, staff and environmental safety.

Environmental factors influencing the distribution of total and fecal coliform bacteria in six water storage reservoirs in the Pearl River Delta Region,China

The Pearl River Delta （PRD） is one of the most developed and densely populated regions in China.Quantifying the amount of pathogens in the source of drinking water is important for improving water quality.We collected water samples from six major water storage reservoirs in the PRD region in both wet and dry seasons in 2006.Results showed that external environmental factors,such as precipitation,location,as well as the internal environmental factors,i.e.,physicochemical properties of the water,were closely related with the distribution of coliforms.Seasonally,the coliform bacterial concentrations in wet season were one to two orders of magnitude greater than those in dry season.Spatially,coliform bacterial levels in reservoirs near urban and industrial areas were significantly higher （p 〈 0.05） than those in remote areas.Correlation analyses showed that the levels of coliforms had close relationships with pH,temperature,suspended solid,organic and inorganic nutrients in water.Principal components analysis further demonstrated that total coliforms in the reservoirs were closely related with water physicochemical properties,while fecal coliforms were more associated with external input brought in by seasonal runoff.

美国环保署的大肠菌群(Coliforms)检测技术

总大肠菌群(Total Coliforms)和大肠杆菌(E·coli)是当前国内、外环境监测部门评价水体污染程度的公认指标和主要监测项目之一。本文介绍了美国环保署应用Colilert酵素变色及荧光反应的方法,检测水中的总大肠菌群(Total Coliforms)和大肠杆菌(E·coli),可以在18-24小时获得检测结果,准确检测水中的总大肠菌群(TotalColiforms)和大肠杆菌(E·coli)的数量。

Prevelance of total coliforms, faecal coliforms and <i>E. coli</i>in Rawalpindi vegetable markets

Nutritional value of vegetables and high prices of meat and meat originated food compel common people to consume plant originated food particularly salad vegetables. Microbial population of vegetable surfaces contains a large number of pathogenic bacteria including members of Enterobactereace like Escherichia coli (E. coli). A survey was conducted in three major markets of Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Tomato, lettuce, cabbage and cucumber samples were collected from three shops of each market. Each vegetable was analysed as unwashed and washed for total coliforms, faecal coliforms and E. coli by FAO (Food Quality Manual). About two hundred and fifty E. coli isolates were preserved, serotyped for presence of O157 serotype. Total coliforms, faecal coliforms and E. coli count exceeded the permissible limits in most samples. The highest Total coliforms were associated with cabbage (3.78 log10 cfu/g). Cucumber was the least contaminated by Total coliforms (2.15 log10 cfu/g). E. coli was detected in tomato, lettuce, cucumber and cabbage. Washed samples showed reduced bacterial population. Seventy six isolates of E. coli were biochemically characterized and serotyped for O157 antigen. A majority of strains could not be identified by serotyping. These findings conclude with high potentially pathogenic microbial load on salad vegetables and urge for preventive action on priority basis.

Rapid detection of coliforms in drinking water of Arak city using multiplex PCR method in comparison with the standard method of culture(Most probably Number)

Objective:To analyse molecular detection of coliforms and shorten the time of PCR.Methods:Rapid detection of coliforms by amplification of lacZ and uidA genes in a multiplex PCR reaction was designed and performed in comparison with most probably number(MPN)method for 16 artificial and 101 field samples.The molecular method was also conducted on isolated coliforms from positive MPN samples;standard sample for verification of microbial method certificated reference material;isolated strains from certificated reference material and standard bacteria.The PCR and electrophoresis parameters were changed for reducing the operation time.Results:Results of PCR for lacZ and uidA genes were similar in all of standard,operational and artificial samples and showed the 876 bp and 147 bp bands of lacZ and uidA genes by multiplex PCR.PCR results were confirmed by MPN culture method by sensitivity 86%(95%CI:0.71-0.93).Also the total execution time,with a successful change of factors,was reduced to less than two and a half hour.Conclusions:Multiplex PCR method with shortened operation time was used for the simultaneous detection of total coliforms and Escherichia coli in distribution system of Arak city.It's recommended to be used at least as an initial screening test,and then the positive samples could be randomly tested by MPN.

Coliforms and Helminth Eggs Removals by Coagulation-Flocculation Treatment Based on Natural Polymers

Wastewater from a municipal wastewater treatment plant (Mexico) was treated by a coagulation-flocculation using natural gums. The residual water was characterized in terms of organic load, and biological contaminants, i.e. total Coliforms (TC), fecal Coliforms (FC) and helminth eggs (HE). The sample has values of 2.8 × 107 MPN/100 ml, 8.48 × 106 MPN/100 ml and 470 HE/L is regarded to TC, FC and HH, respectively. The HE identified in the wastewaters were Diphyllobothrium latum, Ascaris lumbricoides, Hymenolepis nana and Toxocara canis. From several gums, Hydroxypropyl triammonium chloride guar gum (HPTAC-guar) was selected as the most adequate coagulant-flocculant for the class of municipal wastewater (MWW). A diminution of 82% for TC, 94% for FC and 99% for HE was obtained. Besides, the reduction of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and turbidity removals were 46% and 39% respectively. The natural gum mixed with Ca(OH)2, obtained removals of 52% for TC, 100% for HE, 47% for COD and 30% for turbidity.

Evaluation of the Pathogen Detect^®System and Anthracene-Based Enzyme Substrates for the Detection and Differentiation of <i>E. coli</i>and Total Coliforms in Water Samples

Indirect detection of Escherichia coli and total coliforms can be based on the enzymatic activities of β-glucuronidase (β-glu) and β-galactosidase (β-gal). These enzymes utilize the substrates anthracene-β-d-glucuronide and pyrene d-galactopyranoside, respectively. Substrate cleavage by the enzyme releases the soluble fluorescent molecules 2-hydroxyanthracene and 1-hydroxypyrene, which can then be detected by a fluorometer. The Pathogen Detect? system is an automated portable unit that can measure fluorescent enzyme products. In this report, we investigated the utility of the Pathogen Detect? system for potential automation of water quality monitoring. The PDS unit has the ability to detect E. coli, mean 14.7 h at a standard deviation of 1.5, when the sample mean is 9.1 cells in 100 mL with a standard deviation of 12.6. Similarly, total coliforms may be detected at mean 14.7 h with a standard deviation of 1.4 when the sample mean is 59.6 cells in 100 mL, with a standard deviation of 144.5. The PDS unit has the ability to detect single cells of either total coliforms or E. coli in 100 mL water sample within 18 hours. Turbidity and color of water samples have no impact on the detection of E. coli and total coliforms.

Microbial Load (Bacteria, Coliform and Mould Count/Flora) of Some Common Hot Smoked Freshwater Fish Species Using Different Packaging Materials

Three different packaging materials of (37 cm × 25 cm) size (Sealed Transparent Polythene Bag (STPB) Sealed Paper Bag (SPB) (Brown envelope), Open Mouth Polythene Bag (OMPB) (Black incolour)) were used for Oreochromisniloticus (O), Clariasgariepinus (C) and Mormyrusrume (M). Twenty fish samples per species (averaging 250 gm) were hot smoked dried whole for 36 hours at an average temperature of 100?C. Packaged hot at the rate of 6 fishes per package for each species (three packs for each packaging treatment i.e. 18 pieces were packed while the remaining 2 pieces were used for initial bacteria load and microbial load). Microbial load (Total Viable Count (TVC), Total Coliform Count (TCC) and Total Fungi Count (TFC)) for the fresh fish was initial hot smoked and finally at the end of 12 weeks was monitored. The TVC (bacterial load) of O. niloticus dropped from (10.6 - 8.4) × 104 (fresh state-hot smoked) and M. rume (9.8 - 7.0) × 104, while C. gariepinus slightly increased from (12.4 - 12.6) × 104. After hot smoking, highest TVC of 8.6 × 104 (OMPBC), 8.3 × 104 (SPBC) and 8.2 × 104 (STPBC) were recorded in C. gariepinus among the 9 packag- ing at 12 weeks. However highest tendency for heavy TVC is in all OMPB with highest bacteria load in the OMPBC (8.6 × 104), 7.6 × 104 (OMPBO) and 6.6 × 104 (OMPBM). After 12 weeks highest ranged TFC of (0.6 - 0.7) × 104 was recorded in M. rume as against 0.2 × 104 recorded in the initial smoked for all. TCC was highest in C. gariepinus (4.0 - 4.3) × 104. Packaging did not limit the existence of micro-organisms. Six bacteria species (Micrococcus (acidiophilus, luteus), Bacillus (subtilis, cereus, aureus), Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus lactis, Proteus (vulgaricus, morganii), Pseudomonas aureginosa) and three fungi species (Aspergillus (niger, tamari), Rhizopusnigricans, fusariumoxysporum) were represented in all the packages. On the average five bacteria and two fungi species were represented, excepting for OMPBM and OMPBO with six bacteria species.

Detection of oqxA and oqxB efflux pump genes among nosocomial coliform bacilli:An observational cross-sectional study

Objectives:To identify and test the antibiotic susceptibility of nosocomial coliform bacilli and investigate the presence of oqxA and oqxB genes among the multidrug-resistant(MDR)phenotypes.Methods:One hundred and twenty different healthcare-associated infection samples were collected.Coliform bacilli were isolated,identified by conventional methods,and then antibiotic susceptibility tests were done using the VITEK2 system and disk diffusion methods.OqxAB operon was identified using a conventional PCR-based technique.oqxA and oqxB genes were compared between MDR Klebsiella pneumonia(K.pneumonia)phenotypes and MDR Escherichia coli(E.coli)phenotypes.Besides,oqxAB operons were compared between phenotypes of K.pneumonia and E.coli isolates.Results:Seventy coliform bacilli were isolated with the predominance of K.pneumonia and E.coli.Besides,82.1%of K.pneumonia strains and 53.3%of E.coli isolates were MDR phenotypes.Significant more oqxB genes alone were found in MDR E.coli than that in MDR K.pneumoniae phenotypes(χ^(2)=10.160,P=0.003).OqxAB operon was significantly more in MDR phenotypes of E.coli than that in the susceptible phenotypes(P<0.001).There was significantly less of this operon in susceptible E.coli isolates than that in susceptible K.pneumoniae isolates(P<0.001).OqxAB positive isolates that were also resistant to fluoroquinolones,tetracycline,trimethoprim,and chloramphenicol,most probably suggested functional pumps.Conclusions:MDR coliform bacilli are strongly implicated in healthcare-associated infection.Attention should be paid to the presence of oqxAB pump,as an important mechanism in the development of resistance against many antimicrobials because it contributes to co-resistance with other categories;therefore,this pump could be a good target for efflux pump inhibitors.

A Rapid Low Power Ultra-Violet Light-Assisted Bacterial Sensor for Coliform Determination

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) particle-incorporated Prussian blue (PB) sensor for the detection and inactivation of Escherichia coli (E. coli) is developed in this study. The system requires low power ultra-violet (UV) light to photoactivate TiO2 particles and change of signal response is measured immediately upon irradiation using cyclic voltammetry. The generation of free radical species (OH.) and H2O2 from the oxidation of water by the hole (h+) are the main components which cause destruction of cell membrane and eventually result in the inactivation of cell. Our study also shows direct oxidation of cells by h+ as one of the mechanisms for cell inactivation due to the close contact between TiO2 particles and E. coli cells. Highly attractive features of this unique sensor include its ability to be regenerated and reused for at least three times without the use of harsh chemicals, good reproducibility and its specificity in bacteria sensing when tested against organic contaminants, which potentially reduce the operation cost when incorporated into water disinfection system. Its superior performance in detection of total coliform without additional steps of sample treatment is also demonstrated in river water. TiO2 particle-incorporated PB membrane sensor exhibits signal response with higher current output compared to PB-TiO2 coated screen printed carbon electrode (SPCE) due to its porous structure and higher surface area, suggesting its potential development into a powerful and low cost contamination monitoring tool.

The Effect of Physical Factors on Fecal Coliform Viability Rate in Sewage Sludge

Experiments were conducted on the survival rate of fecal coliform after spreading the sewage sludge for desiccation on sludge beds in an open field throughout the year. The ambient temperature, humidity, sunlight intensity and solar radiation were measured during the period of sludge desiccation. The maximum average temperature, sunlight intensity and solar radiation were recorded throughout the year. During May and August the minimum microbial counts were recorded after four weeks of sludge desiccation. Relative humidity did not have significant effect on survival rate. The minimum microbial counts were taken after four weeks of sludge drying. When the sludge was mixed with three different media, the maximum count of fecal coliform was presented when soil mixed with sludge and irrigated with treated sewage effluent (TSE). When soil mixed with sludge irrigated with well water, the number of fecal coliform count dropped significantly. The minimum count occurred when compost was used instead of sludge. This was a clear indication that the source of contamination was from sludge and was mostly contributed by the TSE irrigation. The use of dried sludge after four weeks of treatment had the lowest fecal coliform count and was safe to be used as fertilizer for farming. Oman is located in a semi-equatorial belt with arid environmental conditions which are ideal for elimination of microbial pathogens. Thus, sludge desiccation in such environmental conditions, specifically during the hot months of the year, is perfect for such practice.

Nutrient-Induced Growth of Coliform and HPC Bacteria in Drinking-Water Pipes

We conducted a study on a model drinking water distribution system to evaluate the impact of nutrient in the form of sodium acetate on the growth and survival of coliform and heterotrophic plate count (HPC) bacteria for a maximum of 21 days residence time of water in pipes. Our results show that, besides the nutrient added and the absence of any additional source of contamination and additional supply of nutrient, there was significant growth of the above mentioned bacteria in the pipes and bottles for a couple of days, after which the bacterial population began to decrease. The results indicate that the bacteria used the nutrient to grow and multiply until the nutrient was totally consumed and became depleted in the bulk water phase, after which the bacterial population reached a near stationary level and subsequently declined. This suggests the death of some of the bacteria and their dead cells were used by other bacteria for growth and survival. Using a detection limit of 3.3 CFU/100 mL for the coliforms, the study shows that after sometime, no bacteria were found in the water phase of the pipe, however, the biofilm in the pipes still harbored some of the bacteria. The results have revealed that the bacteria also have the tendency to move from the water phase to the biofilm since the latter provides a more suitable environment for bacteria to thrive on and grow, thus prolonging their survival in the system.

Removal of Iron, Coliforms and Acidity from Ground Water Obtained from Shallow Aquifer Using Trickling Filter Method

Ground water is a major source of drinking water. In the Niger Delta, the ground water is unfit for human consumption due to high concentration of iron, coliforms and acidity. In an attempt to make the water potable, groundwater samples were collected from domestic boreholes and analyzed for physicochemical and microbial parameters using standard analytical methods. The groundwater samples were collected after single and double trickling filter treatment. The treated water from the single and double trickling filter was similarly analyzed. Results show that after treatment, iron decreased from 5.23-9.96 mg/L in the raw water to 1.67-2.02 mg/L in the single treatment and 0.05-0.31 mg/L in the double treated water （P 〈 0.05）. Similarly, pH increased from 4.39-5.17 in the raw water to 5.31-5.87 in the single treatment and 6.09-6.90 in the double treatment （P 〈 0.05）. Coliforms decreased from 60-85 MPN/100 mL in the raw water to 3-10 MPN/100 mL in the single treatment and 0-2 MPN/100 mL in the double treatment （P 〈 0.05）. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that it is unsafe to drink untreated groundwater as currently practiced in the Niger Delta, but should be subjected to double trickling filter treatment and chlorination before consumption.

Behavior of Antibiotic-Resistant Fecal Coliforms in the Stream of a Sewage Treatment Plant in Tokyo

We are confronting a new threat in the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria followed by epidemic spread in aquatic environments in metropolitan areas because damage from river floods is increasing remarkably in Japan due to global extreme weather. The sewer penetration rate is about 100% in Tokyo and reclaimed water from sewage treatment plants accounts for over 50% of all water in both the down- and mid-stream areas of local rivers. The water quality of these rivers, which contain microflora, seems to be seriously affected by reclaimed water. In this study, we collected water samples on July 17, 2018 and examined the behavior of antibiotic-resistant fecal coliforms in the stream of a sewage treatment plant in Tokyo. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing fecal coliforms with encoding genes were found;the CTX-M-1, CTX-M-9, TEM, and SHV groups were found to have survived in the final effluent to the river after sterilization with sodium hypochlorite.

Stochastic Modeling for Coliform Count Assessment in Ground Water

Stochastic models are derived to estimate the level of coliform count in terms of MPN index, one of the most important water quality characteristic in ground water based on a set of water source location and soil characteristics. The study is based on about twenty location and soil characteristics, majority of them are observed through laboratory analysis of soil and water samples collected from nearly thee hundred locations of drinking water sources, wells and bore wells selected at random from the district of Kasaragod. The water contamination in wells are found to be relatively more as compared to bore wells. The study reveals that only 7 % of the wells and 40 o~ of the bore wells of the district are within the permissible limit of WHO standard of drinking water quality. The level of contamination is very high in the hospital premises and is very low in the forest area. Two separate multiple ordinal logistic regression models are developed to predict the level of coliform count, one for well and the other for bore well. The significant feature of this study is that in addition to scientifically proving the dependence of the water quality on the distances from waste disposal area and septic tanks etc., it highlights the dependence of two other very significant soil characteristics, the soil organic carbon and soil porosity. The models enable to predict the quality of water in a location based on the set of soil and location characteristics. One of the important uses of the model is in fixing safe locations for waste dump area, septic tank, digging well etc. in town planning, designing residential layouts, industrial layouts, hospital/hostel construction etc. This is the first ever study to describe the ground water quality in terms of the location and soil characteristics.

Characterization of Springtime Coliform Populations at the End Creek Wetland Restoration (Union Co., Oregon, USA): A Three-Year Study

In 2005, a 550-acre tract of agricultural land containing two small streams near La Grande, Oregon was registered in the U.S. Federal Wetlands Reserve Program. This designation was part of a plan to reclaim and restore the wetland to its natural state. Initial efforts at the End Creek Restoration Project restored both End Creek and South Fork Willow Creek to a natural course through rechanneling, and several plantings had restored some of the native flora. Since its establishment, the End Creek streams and floodplain have become a reserve for summer steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss), a threatened anadromous salmonid, and many migratory birds. The threatened Columbia Spotted Frog has also established itself in some of the ponds. As part of an effort to establish a baseline for water quality, we monitored total springtime coliform and fecal coliform bacteria in three of the End Creek ponds for three years. The results of this study indicate that, throughout any given spring, the numbers of both coliform and fecal coliform bacteria can fluctuate markedly among ponds on any given day, and that in any particular pond the numbers fluctuate from week to week. In addition, our analysis suggests that in early spring, the numbers of these organisms also fluctuate from year to year. The causes of these fluctuations are not well understood, but are expected to reflect both springtime flooding and the migrations of source animals such as waterfowl and cervids. Information gathered from this study will help inform future management activities on the wetland.

Assessing the East Bay of Galveston Bay, Texas for Coliform Bacteria in Recreational Water

The Galveston Bay beach is a widely used recreational area that remains a concern in terms of water quality. There are many factors that contribute to its pollution such as fecal matter entering the bay due to overflow of the sewage system and run offs. Thus, evaluating the water quality for fecal matter and other pollutants is continuously monitored by citizen scientists and research groups throughout the Galveston Bay. The investigation utilizes the colorimetric response of coliform at three test sites along the East Bay of Galveston. Each response is positive for coliform that may indicate the presence of fecal matter. Other scientists have denoted the presence of fecal matter in the Galveston Bay at two sites using enterococci indicator which may be more associated with human fecal matter. The analyses show that the recreational water is likely not a threat since its levels were low. However, the need for analyses based on EPA protocols and standards is necessary to better access water pollution due to fecal matter in the Galveston Bay area.