Neoantigen cancer vaccines:a new star on the horizon

Immunotherapy represents a promising strategy for cancer treatment that utilizes immune cells or drugs to activate the patient's own immune system and eliminate cancer cells.One of the most exciting advances within this field is the targeting of neoantigens,which are peptides derived from non-synonymous somatic mutations that are found exclusively within cancer cells and absent in normal cells.Although neoantigen-based therapeutic vaccines have not received approval for standard cancer treatment,early clinical trials have yielded encouraging outcomes as standalone monotherapy or when combined with checkpoint inhibitors.Progress made in high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics have greatly facilitated the precise and efficient identification of neoantigens.Consequently,personalized neoantigen-based vaccines tailored to each patient have been developed that are capable of eliciting a robust and long-lasting immune response which effectively eliminates tumors and prevents recurrences.This review provides a concise overview consolidating the latest clinical advances in neoantigen-based therapeutic vaccines,and also discusses challenges and future perspectives for this innovative approach,particularly emphasizing the potential of neoantigen-based therapeutic vaccines to enhance clinical efficacy against advanced solid tumors.

Development of therapeutic cancer vaccines using nanomicellar preparations

Cancer treatment is a multifaceted challenge,and therapeutic vaccines have emerged as a promising approach.The micellar preparation efficiently encapsulates antigen polypeptides and enhances antigen presentation through the major histocompatibility class I pathway,promoting cytotoxic T lymphocyte immune responses.Moreover,it enables codelivery of both antigen and adjuvant to the same target antigen-presenting cells.Combining themicellar vaccine with traditional cancer treatments(such as chemotherapy,radiotherapy,and surgery)has demonstrated improved efficacy in murine tumor models.Overall,the polyethylene glycol-phosphatidylethanolamine micelle-based vaccine presents a promising platformfor cancer therapeutic vaccines.By leveraging the strengths of various treatmentmodalities,this innovative vaccine approach holds the potential to revolutionize cancer therapy and bring new possibilities for cancer patients.

Recent advances in heat shock protein-based cancer vaccines

BACKGROUND: Active immunotherapy has been successful in preventing many infectious diseases, and is being explored for its anti-tumor use. Purified antigens, peptides, gene-based systems and antigens contained in whole cells or cell lysates are used in specific active immunotherapy for cancer, known as cancer vaccines. Cancer vaccines do not directly kill tumor cells, but prime a specific humoral and/or cellular immune response against the tumor. Up to date, many kinds of cancer vaccines have been tested in the world and have shown their own advantages. Heat shock protein (HSP)-based cancer vaccine is one of the outstanding representatives. In this paper, we review recent advances in HSP-based cancer vaccines. DATA SOURCES: An English-language literature search was conducted using MEDLINE (1990-2005) on HSP, cancer vaccines and other related subjects. RESULTS: Several kinds of HSP-based cancer vaccines which have been explored worldwide, include tumor derived HSP-pepdde complex cancer vaccines, artificially reconstituted HSP-peptide complex cancer vaccines, HSPpeptide fusion protein cancer vaccines and HSP-based DNA cancer vaccines, etc. Many HSP-based cancer vaccines are being tested in clinical trials, and some are being tested in phase Ⅲ clinical trials at present. CONCLUSION: The available results in preclinical tests and clinical trials indicate that HSP-based cancer vaccines are promising in cancer therapy.

Fueling the engine and releasing the break: combinational therapy of cancer vaccines and immune checkpoint inhibitors

Immune checkpoint inhibitors are increasingly drawing much attention in the therapeutic development for cancer treatment. However, many cancer patients do not respond to treatments with immune checkpoint inhibitors, partly because of the lack of tumor-infiltrating effector T cells. Cancer vaccines may prime patients for treatments with immune checkpoint inhibitors by inducing effector T-ceU infiltration into the tumors and immune checkpoint signals. The combination of cancer vaccine and an immune checkpoint inhibitor may function synergistically to induce more effective antitumor immune responses, and clinical trials to test the combination are currently ongoing.

Potential of mRNA vaccines to become versatile cancer vaccines

For centuries,therapeutic cancer vaccines have been developed and tried clinically.Way back in the late 19th century,the Father of Immunotherapy,William Coley had discovered that bacterial toxins were effective for inoperable sarcomas.In the 1970s,the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin(BCG)vaccine was repurposed,e.g.,for advanced melanomas.Then,therapeutic cancer vaccines based on tumorassociated antigens(found on the surfaces of cancer cells)were tried clinically but apparently have not made a really significant clinical impact.For repurposed pathogen vaccines,only the BCG vaccine was approved in 1989 for local application to treat nonmuscle-invading bladder cancers.Although the mildly toxic vaccine adjuvants deliberately added to conventional pathogen vaccines are appropriate for seasonal applications,when repurposed for continual oncology usage,toxicity may be problematic.In 2010,even with the approval of sipuleucel-T as the very first cancer vaccine(dendritic cell)developed for designated prostate cancers,it has also not made a really significant clinical impact.Perhaps more"user friendly"cancer vaccines should be explored.As from approximately 30 years ago,the safety and effectiveness of mRNA vaccination for oncology had already been studied,the current coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic,though disastrous,has given such progressively advancing technology a kickstart.For oncology,other virtues of mRNA vaccines seem advantageous,e.g.,rapid and versatile development,convenient modular design,and entirely cell-free synthesis,are being progressively recognized.Moreover,mRNAs encoding various oncology antigens for vaccination may also be tested with the combination of relatively non-toxic modalities of oncology treatments,e.g.,metformin or metronomic(low-dose,prolonged administration)chemotherapy.Admittedly,robust clinical data obtained through good quality clinical trials are mandatory.

Overcoming neutrophil-induced immunosuppression in postoperative cancer therapy: Combined sialic acid-modified liposomes with scaffold-based vaccines

Immunotherapy is a promising approach for preventing postoperative tumor recurrence and metastasis. However, inflammatory neutrophils, recruited to the postoperative tumor site, have been shown to exacerbate tumor regeneration and limit the efficacy of cancer vaccines. Consequently, addressing postoperative immunosuppression caused by neutrophils is crucial for improving treatment outcomes. This study presents a combined chemoimmunotherapeutic strategy that employs a biocompatible macroporous scaffold-based cancer vaccine (S-CV) and a sialic acid (SA)-modified, doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded liposomal platform (DOX@SAL). The S-CV contains whole tumor lysates as antigens and imiquimod (R837, Toll-like receptor 7 activator)-loaded PLGA nanoparticles as immune adjuvants for cancer, which enhance dendritic cell activation and cytotoxic T cell proliferation upon localized implantation. When administered intravenously, DOX@SAL specifically targets and delivers drugs to activated neutrophils in vivo, mitigating neutrophil infiltration and suppressing postoperative inflammatory responses. In vivo and vitro experiments have demonstrated that S-CV plus DOX@SAL, a combined chemo-immunotherapeutic strategy, has a remarkable potential to inhibit postoperative local tumor recurrence and distant tumor progression, with minimal systemic toxicity, providing a new concept for postoperative treatment of tumors.

Bidirectional crosstalk between therapeutic cancer vaccines and the tumor microenvironment:Beyond tumor antigens

Immunotherapy has rejuvenated cancer therapy,especially after anti-PD-(L)1 came onto the scene.Among the many therapeutic options,therapeutic cancer vaccines are one of the most essential players.Although great progress has been made in research on tumor antigen vaccines,few phase III trials have shown clinical benefits.One of the reasons lies in obstruction from the tumor microenvironment(TME).Meanwhile,the therapeutic cancer vaccine reshapes the TME in an ambivalent way,leading to immune stimulation or immune escape.In this review,we summarize recent progress on the interaction between therapeutic cancer vaccines and the TME.With respect to vaccine resistance,innate immunosuppressive TME components and acquired resistance caused by vaccination are both involved.Understanding the underlying mechanism of this crosstalk provides insight into the treatment of cancer by directly targeting the TME or synergizing with other therapeutics.

Approaches and challenges in cancer immunotherapy pathways

Cancer immunotherapy is an effective with critical approaches in the treatment of oncological patients.Whilst numerous research and clinical trials are underway to develop endogenous immunotherapy approaches,it is necessary to focus on fundamental issues and identify barriers to basic clinical progress.Addressing these challenges and the new pathways will require researchers and clinicians to join forces to accelerate the understanding of the complex interactions between cancer and the immune system and focus resources on developing better treatments for patients.

Immunotherapy and therapeutic vaccines in prostate cancer： an update on current strategies and clinical implications

In recent years, immunotherapy has emerged as a viable and attractive strategy for the treatment of prostate cancer. While there are multiple ways to target the immune system, therapeutic cancer vaccines and immune checkpoint inhibitors have been most successful in late-stage clinical trials. The landmark Food and Drug Administration approval of sipuleuceI-T for asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic metastatic prostate cancer set the stage for ongoing phase III trials with the cancer vaccine PSA-TRICOM and the immune checkpoint inhibitor ipilimumab. A common feature of these immune-based therapies is the appearance of improved overall survival without short-term changes in disease progression. This class effect appears to be due to modulation of tumor growth rate kinetics, in which the activated immune system exerts constant immunologic pressure that slows net tumor growth. Emerging data suggest that the ideal population for clinical trials of cancer vaccines is patients with lower tumor volume and less aggressive disease. Combination strategies that combine immunotherapy with standard therapies have been shown to augment both immune response and clinical benefit.

Non-covalent glycosylated gold nanoparticles/peptides nanovaccine as potential cancer vaccines

Herein,we firstly developed a non-covalent glycosylated gold nanoparticles/peptides nanovaccine which is assembled byβ-cyclodextrin(β-CD)based host-guest recognitions.This nanovaccine can generate significant titers of antibodies and improve the therapeutic effect against melanoma,suggesting the immunogenicity of peptide antigens can be improved by loading with this carrier.The novel vaccine carrier provides a platform for the transport of various antigens especially T cell-independent antigens.

Bacterial outer membrane vesicle-based cancer nanovaccines

Tumor vaccines,a type of personalized tumor immunotherapy,have developed rapidly in recent decades.These vaccines evoke tumor antigen-specific T cells to achieve immune recognition and killing of tumor cells.Because the immunogenicity of tumor antigens alone is insufficient,immune adjuvants and nanocarriers are often required to enhance anti-tumor immune responses.At present,vaccine carrier development often integrates nanocarriers and immune adjuvants.Among them,outer membrane vesicles(OMVs)are receiving increasing attention as a delivery platform for tumor vaccines.OMVs are natural nanovesicles derived from Gramnegative bacteria,which have adjuvant function because they contain pathogen associated molecular patterns.Importantly,OMVs can be functionally modified by genetic engineering of bacteria,thus laying a foundation for applications as a delivery platform for tumor nanovaccines.This review summarizes 5 aspects of recent progress in,and future development of,OMV-based tumor nanovaccines:strain selection,heterogeneity,tumor antigen loading,immunogenicity and safety,and mass production of OMVs.

Full synthesis and bioactivity evaluation of Tn-RC-529 derivative conjugates as self-adjuvanting cancer vaccines

A facile and efficient strategy was established for the construction of RC-529 and its derivatives.Four conjugates of RC-529 derivatives with Tn antigen were synthesized and all elicited strong and T celldependent immune responses in mice without requiring external adjuvants.In addition,all antisera induced by these conjugates could specifically recognize,bind to and kill Tn-overexpressing cancer cells.Thus,RC-529 shows promise as a useful platform for the development of new vaccine carriers with self-adjuvanting properties for the treatment of cancer.Moreover,preliminary structure-activity relationship analysis provides convincing support for further optimization of,and additional investigation into RC-529.

Dissecting Cancer Vaccines

癌症病人中对癌症预防疫苗发明物反应强烈的跟那些反应一般的病人相比,他们有一种蛋白质——S100B,它的标准比较低,而且只有一小部分人对这部分人对这部分发明物反应比较强烈,为什么?

mRNA cancer vaccines:Advances,trends and challenges

Patients exhibit good tolerance to messenger ribonucleic acid(m RNA)vaccines,and the choice of encoded molecules is flexible and diverse.These vaccines can be engineered to express full-length antigens containing multiple epitopes without major histocompatibility complex(MHC)restriction,are relatively easy to control and can be rapidly mass produced.In 2021,the U.S.Food and Drug Administration(FDA)approved the first m RNA-based coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19)vaccine produced by Pfizer and Bio NTech,which has generated enthusiasm for m RNA vaccine research and development.Based on the above characteristics and the development of m RNA vaccines,m RNA cancer vaccines have become a research hotspot and have undergone rapid development,especially in the last five years.This review analyzes the advances in m RNA cancer vaccines from various perspectives,including the selection and expression of antigens/targets,the application of vectors and adjuvants,different administration routes,and preclinical evaluation,to reflect the trends and challenges associated with these vaccines.

Engineering cancer vaccines using stimuli-responsive biomaterials

Cancer vaccines aimed at expanding the pool or increasing the activity of tumor-specific T cells against malignancies is an important immunotherapy modality that has been extensively pursued in the past decades. However, the clinical efficacy of cancer vaccines remains modest in comparison to other immunotherapies, such as checkpoint blockade and adoptive T cell therapy. This unsatisfactory performance is likely due to the suboptimal selection of tumor antigens for vaccine and inefficient delivery platform. Recently, vaccines designed to target cancer neoantigens have shown marked promise in both preclinical and early clinical studies. However, enormous challenges need to be overcome to develop a highly efficient and safe delivery strategy for targeting cancer vaccines to professional antigen-presenting cells and eliciting optimized immune response against cancers. To meet these challenges, biomaterials, particularly biomaterials that are designed to respond to certain environmental stimuli, termed as stimuli-responsive biomaterials, are being actively developed to precisely manipulate the trafficking and release of cancer vaccines in vivo for enhanced therapeutic efficacy and safety. In this mini review, we provide a brief overview of the recent advances in applying stimuli-responsive biomaterials in enhancing non-cellular cancer vaccines while focusing on the chemistry and material design with varied responsiveness. We also discuss the present challenges and opportunities in the field and provide a perspective for future directions.

The Changes in the Awareness of Cervical Cancer Prevention and the Acceptability of HPV Vaccines among Women after Their Introduction in China

Cervical cancer is a form of malignant tumor that seriously threatens women’s health. In China,according to the cancer statistics, 98,900 new cervical cancer cases and 30,500 deaths due to cervical cancer were estimated to have occurred in2015, and the incidence and mortality rates still exhibited an upward trend[1].

Challenges to addressing the unmet medical needs for immunotherapy targeting cold colorectal cancer

With the establishment of the immune surveillance mechanism since the 1950s,attempts have been made to activate the immune system for cancer treatment through the discovery of various cytokines or the development of antibodies up to now.The fruits of these efforts have contributed to the recognition of the 3rd generation of anticancer immunotherapy as the mainstream of cancer treatment.However,the limitations of cancer immunotherapy are also being recognized through the conceptual establishment of cold tumors recently,and colorectal cancer(CRC)has become a major issue from this therapeutic point of view.Here,it is emphasized that non-clinical strategies to overcome the immunosuppressive environment and clinical trials based on these basic investigations are being made on the journey to achieve better treatment outcomes for the treatment of cold CRC.

Tumor Carbohydrate Antigens and Strategies to Develop Cancer Vaccines and Drugs

Certain carbohydrate antigens of malignantly trans- formed cells have been identified as markers for the onset of can- cer and have become targets for the development of anticancer vaccine therapies. For tumor antigens, many carbohydrate antigens belong to T-independent （TI） antigens. Carbohydrate conjugated to protein carriers can switch TI antigen to a T-dependent （TD） anti- gen. Attempts to add an innate immune response element （such as Toll-like receptor ligand） to carbohydrate TI-antigens have also been studied. Glycosylation inhibitors or small interfering RNA have also been used for antitumor and/or antiviral agents. This review aims at describing the vast spectrum of tumor carbohydrate antigens and strategies to develop cancer vaccines and drugs.

Using Bacterial Vectors for Probable Vaccines: From Molecular Mechanism to Cancer Therapy

Anti-cancer therapies over the few decades, faced with many challenges. And bacterial vaccine vectors have shown a potential to be replaced as the cutting-edge technology for such aspects. Bacterial vaccine vectors with a suitable DNA can be a potential option for cancer treatment as a carrier for tumoricidal agents or bacterially directed Enzyme Prodrug treatment. Throughout this study, it is planned to have a review of the use of bacteria as vehicles by different ways for cancer treatment, detailing the systems of function and achievements at preclinical and clinical levels.

Immunotherapy for advanced gastric cancer

Gastric cancer(GC)is believed to be the fifth most common cancer and the third most common cause of death worldwide.Treatment techniques include radiation,chemotherapy,gastrectomy,and targeted treatments are often employed.Some hopeful results from the development of GC immunotherapy have already changed treatment approaches.Along with previous combination medicines,new immunotherapies have been developed that target distinct molecules.Despite ongoing studies into the current therapeutic options and significant improvements in this field,the prognosis for the ailment is poor.Since there are few treatment options and a delay in detection,the illness actually advances,spreads,and metastasizes.The bulk of immunotherapies in use today rely on cytotoxic immune cells,monoclonal antibodies,and gene-transferred vaccines.Immune checkpoint inhibitors have become more popular.In this review,we sought to examine the viewpoint and development of several immunotherapy treatment modalities for advanced GC,as well as the clinical results thus far reported.Additionally,we outlined tumor immune escape and tumor immunosurveillance.