TRADE DEPENDENCIES AND TRANSACTION COSTS: THE OC-CUPATION OF DECELEA HIGHLIGHTS BOTH THE BENEFITS AND THE DRAWBACKS OF A MARITIME ECONOMY

Thucydides asserts that the occupation of Decelea by the Spartans in 413 BC made the grain supply for Athens costly by forcing the transport from land onto the sea.This calls into question the well-established consensus that sea transport was far cheaper than land transport.This paper contends that the cost of protecting supply lines-specifically the expenses associated with the warships which escorted the supply ships-rendered the grain transported on the new route exceptionally costly.In this paper,the benefits and drawbacks of a maritime economy,including transaction costs,trade dependencies,and the capabilities of warships and supply ships are discussed.

Charging Ahead with E-Buses: Benefits, Costs, and Transition Roadmap

This paper reaches a recommendation for the 10-year e-bus transition roadmap for New York City. The lifecycle model of emission reduction demonstrates the ecological and financial impacts of a complete transition from the current diesel bus fleet to an all-electric bus fleet in New York City by 2033. This study focuses on the NOx pollution, which is the highest among all major cities by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and greenhouse gases (GHG) with annual emissions of over five million tons. Our model predicts that switching to an all-electric bus fleet will cut GHG emissions by over 390,000 tons and NOx emissions by over 1300 tons annually, in addition to other pollutants such as VOCs and PM 2.5. yielding an annual economic benefit of over 75.94 million USD. This aligns with the city mayor office’s initiative of achieving total carbon neutrality. We further model an optimized transition roadmap that balances ecological and long-term benefits against the costs of the transition, emphasizing feasibility and alignment with the natural replacement cycle of existing buses, ensuring a steady budgeting pattern to minimize interruptions and resistance. Finally, we advocate for collaboration between government agencies, public transportation authorities, and private sectors, including electric buses and charging facility manufacturers, which is essential for fostering innovation and reducing the costs associated with the transition to e-buses.

社区综合干预方案对乳腺癌患者Cost/Benefit、PSSS影响研究

目的:探讨社区综合干预方案对乳腺癌患者经济负担评价、领悟社会支持量表的影响。方法:将112例乳腺癌病人随机分为综合干预组与对照组各56例。观察比较乳腺癌患者在干预前、干预后6、12、18个月Cost/Benefit、PSSS评分变化。结果:两组在乳腺癌经济负担评价、领悟社会支持量表方面有明显差异。结论:社区综合干预方案可以减轻乳腺癌患者的经济负担,提高社会支持度。

Cost-benefit analysis of screening for esophageal and gastric cardiac cancer

In 2005, a program named "Early Detection and Early Treatment of Esophageal and Cardiac Cancer" (EDETEC) was initiated in China. A total of 8279 residents aged 40-69 years old were recruited into the EDETEC program in Linzhou of Henan Province between 2005 and 2008. Howerer, the cost-benefit of the EDETEC program is not very clear yet. We conducted herein a cost-benefit analysis of screening for esophageal and cardiac cancer. The assessed costs of the EDETEC program included screening costs for each subject, as well as direct and indirect treatment costs for esophageal and cardiac severe dysplasia and cancer detected by screening. The assessed benefits of this program included the saved treatment costs, both direct and indirect, on esophageal and cardiac cancer, as well as the value of prolonged life due to screening, as determined by the human capital approach. The results showed the screening cost of finding esophageal and cardiac severe dysplasia or cancer ranged from $2707 to $4512, and the total cost on screening and treatment was $13 115-$14 920. The cost benefit was $58 944-$155 110 (the saved treatment cost, $17 730, plus the value of prolonged life, $41 214-$137 380). The ratio of benefit-to-cost (BCR) was 3.95-11.83. Our results suggest that EDETEC has a high benefit-to-cost ratio in China and could be instituted into high risk areas of China.

The Cost-Benefit Analysis for Bananas Diversity Production in China Foc. Zones

Over 50 years ago, banana export plantations in Panama were ruined by Fusarium wilt race 1 (Foc. R1) since the popular cultivar Gros Michel is susceptible to Foc. R1 [1]. Fortunately, the resistant cultivar Cavendish replaced Gros Michel as the world biggest commercial fruit after ten years’ research and development. Due to its good economic profit, banana industry develops very fast recently in China. Unfortunately, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense tropical race 4 (TR4) brought disaster to Cavendish plantation since 1996. Most of traditional banana planting zones of Guangdong and Hainan provinces were infected by Foc. TR4 to the end of 2009. In order to fight against Foc. TR4, here we tried to investigate the cost-benefit and disease resistance of six banana cultivars (Cavendish Baxijiao, Dajiao, Guangfen No. 1, Fenzha No. 1, Gongjiao, Haigongjiao) planted in China Foc. Zones. Comparisons were conducted on their economic characteristics, cost, benefit, as well as the advantage and disadvantage and their application in rota-tion. Generally, supposing the investment of $ 4400/ha, the banana plantation attains a good economic profit as $ 2200/ha. Rotation of these cultivars can maintain the biodiversity as well as improve the sustainable development of banana industry.

Cost benefit analysis of the use of tranexamic acid in primary lower limb arthroplasty: A retrospective cohort study

AIM: To examine the cost benefit conferred by the perioperative administration of intravenous tranexamic acid(TXA) in lower limb arthroplasty.METHODS: This study evaluates the use of TXA in 200 consecutive lower limb arthroplasties performed in a single surgeon series. The initial 100 patients(control group) underwent surgery without perioperative administration of TXA while the subsequent 100 patients(TXA group) all received 1 g TXA at the time of induction of anaesthesia. Pre- and post-operative haemoglobin, platelet count, haematocrit, the use of blood product post-operatively, length of stay were examined. A financial analysis of both groups was then undertaken. RESULTS: The mean age of patients in both groups was 63 ± 13 years. There were no significant differences between groups in terms of gender(P = 0.47), proportion of total hip replacement to total knee replacement(P = 0.25) or pre-operative haemoglobin(P = 0.43). In the control group, the transfusion rate was 22%. In the TXA group, the transfusion rate dropped to 2%(P < 0.001). The mean post-operative haemoglobin was 10.82 ± 1.55g/dL in the control group vs 11.33 ± 1.27 g/dL in the TXA group(P = 0.01). The total cost of transfused blood products was €11055 and €603 respectively. The mean length of stay in the control group was 6.53 ± 5.93 d vs 5.47 ± 4.26 d in the TXA group(P = 0.15) leading to an estimated financial saving of €114586. There was one pulmonary embolus in the control group and one deep venous thrombosis in the TXA group.CONCLUSION: Intravenous TXA reduces blood loss in lower limb arthroplasty. This leads to lower transfusion rates, shorter length of stay in hospital and significant financial savings.

GMOs in animal agriculture: time to consider both costs and benefits in regulatory evaluations

In 2012, genetically engineered （GE） crops were grown by 17.3 million farmers on over 170 million hectares. Over 70% of harvested GE biomass is fed to food producing animals, making them the major consumers of GE crops for the past 15 plus years. Prior to commercialization, GE crops go through an extensive regulatory evaluation. Over one hundred regulatory submissions have shown compositional equivalence, and comparable levels of safety, between GE crops and their conventional counterparts. One component of regulatory compliance is whole GE food/feed animal feeding studies. Both regulatory studies and independent peer-reviewed studies have shown that GE crops can be safely used in animal feed, and rDNA fragments have never been detected in products （e.g. milk, meat, eggs） derived from animals that consumed GE feed. Despite the fact that the scientific weight of evidence from these hundreds of studies have not revealed unique risks associated with GE feed, some groups are calling for more animal feeding studies, including long-term rodent studies and studies in target livestock species for the approval of GE crops. It is an opportune time to review the results of such studies as have been done to date to evaluate the value of the additional information obtained. Requiring long-term and target animal feeding studies would sharply increase regulatory compliance costs and prolong the regulatory process associated with the commercialization of GE crops. Such costs may impede the development of feed crops with enhanced nutritional characteristics and durability, particularly in the local varieties in small and poor developing countries. More generally it is time for regulatory evaluations to more explicitly consider both the reasonable and unique risks and benefits associated with the use of both GE plants and animals in agricultural systems, and weigh them against those associated with existing systems, and those of regulatory inaction. This would represent a shift away from a GE evaluation process that currently focuses only on risk assessment and identifying ever diminishing marginal hazards, to a regulatory approach that more objectively evaluates and communicates the likely impact of approving a new GE plant or animal on agricultural production systems.

External Costs and Optimum Use of Nitrogen Fertilizer Based on the Balance of Economic and Ecological Benefits in the Paddy Field System of the Dongting Lake Area, China

The external costs and the optimum use of nitrogen fertilizer based on the balance of economic and ecological benefits was studied with the paddy field system of Dongting Lake area, one of the main food production regions in China. The environmental impact was economically evaluated using methods of the environmental impact economical evaluation. The optimum use of nitrogen fertilizer was calculated based on the exterior diseconomy theory and by using the production function model. Both ecological benefits and farmers＇ economic benefits were considered. It was calculated on the data from 2002 that the losses caused by inappropriate utilization of nitrogen fertilizer in the process of food production were fishery, 0.1 × 10^7 RMB yuan; water treatment, 1.02 × 10^8 RMB yuan; tour business, 0.11 ×10^8 RMB yuan, and habitation environment, 0.3 × 10^7 RMB yuan, totally equivalent to 0.41 RMB yuan kg^-1 N. The economically satisfactory and the ecological agronomic nitrogen fertilizer dose for current production was 138 and 137 kg ha^-1, respectively. The research showed that the actual nitrogen fertilizer application amount in the paddy field system of the Dongting Lake area already reached or exceeded the farmers＇ economic satisfaction and the ecological agronomic nitrogen fertilizer dose for current production. An environmental tax is suggested to impose on over-use of nitrogen fertilizer.

Benefits and Costs of the Informal Sector: The Case of Brick Kilns in Bangladesh

In developing countries, the informal sector—brick kilns, leather tanning, food processing factories—is often highly polluting, causing countless deaths and illnesses. This paper presents the case of brick kilns in Dhaka, one of the most polluted cities in Asia. Five months per year, brick kilns are the city’s main source of fine particulate pollution, accounting for 38 percent of total fine particulate mass. The paper values the impacts of existing and alternative brick kiln technologies in Dhaka city. Through a Cost-Benefit Analysis, it estimates the net returns for the entrepreneur, and the social costs, such as health impacts from air pollution and damages due to carbon emissions from kilns. It shows that cleaner technologies are more attractive than traditional technologies both from the private and social perspective, and provides concrete recommendations for a cleaner brick sector in Bangladesh.

Cost-benefit analysis of screening for diabetic retinopathy among Chinese type 2 diabetes: decision from different perspectives of a population-based study

The purpose of this study is to explore whether it is worthwhile to launch a routine diabetic retinopathy (DR) screening for blindness pre-vention among Chinese type 2 diabetes from different perspective based on the popula-tion-based study in Kinmen, Taiwan. A total of 971 community dwelling adults previously di-agnosed with type 2 diabetes in 1991-1993 un-derwent DR screening in 1999-2002 by a panel of ophthalmologists using on-site indirect oph-thalmoscopy and 45-degree color fundus retinal photographs. The cost-benefit analysis is used to evaluate the DR screening. In terms of bene-fit-cost ratio, the different screening programs for DR could save New Taiwan Dollars (NTD) from 14.38 to 36.83 in discounted costs for each dollar incurred in different screening years from the societal viewpoint for Taiwan and save NTD from 0.81 to 1.80 in different screening years from health care payer’s perspective. The av-erage estimate of willingness-to-pay to translate into benefit yields NTD from 937.8 to 4,689 be- nefits per case due to DR screening in different screening years during 10-year follow-up. The net present value of the DR screening were NTD from -167,318 to -307,251.2 in different screening years. In conclusion, it is worthwhile to initial a routine DR screening of Chinese type 2 diabetes for blindness prevention from the societal per-spective but not from consumer decision based on the willingness-to-pay perspective.

Economic Viability of Smallholder Agroforestry and Beekeeping Projects in Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania: A Cost Benefit Analysis

Agroforestry and beekeeping are widely promoted as prospective Nature- Based Income Generating Activities (NIGAs) to improve livelihoods while at the same time enhancing biodiversity conservation in degrading agro-ecologies. These activities can diversify and increase famers’ incomes and support instinctive biota and fauna resilience. However, evidence to showcase and compare their long-term benefits is scant. We use the case of Uluguru Mountains in Tanzania to evaluate and compare viability of agroforestry and beekeeping projects using the Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) approach. The results of analysis yielded positive NPVs for both agroforestry and beekeeping projects at discount rates not higher than 8.2% and 8.5% respectively. Overall, the comparison of economic viability between agroforestry and beekeeping projects revealed that the former was relatively more profitable than the later in terms of both the NPV and Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) criteria. However, the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) for beekeeping was slightly higher than that of agroforestry. Yet, we underscore the fact that these two projects can jointly be implemented to enhance livelihoods of farmers and support biodiversity conservation in the study area and other parts with similar agro-ecologies in developing countries. However, farmers in these agro-ecologies need to be supported by governments and non-government development partners in terms of training and inspiration to shift from orthodox farming to sustainable NIGAs.

An Integrated Approach to Evaluate Benefits and Costs of Wastewater and Solid Waste Management to Improve the Living Environment: The Citarum River in West Java, Indonesia

Absence of wastewater and solid waste facilities impacts the quality of life of many people in developing countries. Implementation of these facilities will benefit public health, water quality, livelihoods and property value. Additional benefits may result from the potential recovery of valuable resources from wastewater and solid waste, such as compost, energy, phosphorus, plastics and paper. Improving water quality through implementation of wastewater and solid waste interventions requires, among others, an analysis of i) sources of pollution, ii) mitigating measures and resource recovery potentials and their effect on water quality and health, and iii) benefits and costs of interventions. We present an integrated approach to evaluate costs and benefits of domestic and industrial wastewater and solid waste interventions. To support a policy maker in formulating a cost and environmentally effective approach, we quantified the impact of these interventions on 1) water quality improvement, 2) resource recovery potential, and 3) monetized benefits versus costs. The integration of technical, hydrological, agronomical and socio-economic elements to derive these three tangible outputs in a joint approach is a novelty. The approach is demonstrated using the heavily polluted Indonesian Upper Citarum River in the Bandung region. Domestic interventions, applying simple (anaerobic filter) technologies, were economically most attractive with a benefit cost ratio (BCR) of 3.2, but could not reach target water quality standards. To approach the target water quality, both advanced domestic (nutrient removal systems) and industrial wastewater treatment interventions were required, leading to a BCR of 2. We showed that benefits from selling recovered resources represent here an additional driver for improving water quality and outweigh the additional costs for resource recovery facilities. While included benefits captured some of the major items, these may have been undervalued. Based on these findings, water quality interventions justify their costs and are socially and economically beneficial.

Cost-benefit Analysis of Land Development Projects Based on Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation Model

Ecological and environmental issues have always been the focus of government work. The economic losses caused by air pollution,water pollution,noise pollution and solid waste pollution caused by land use development projects are estimated,and the total population economic losses are incorporated into project costing. Using the analytic hierarchy process,four benefit indicators and five cost indicators are selected for constructing a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model to evaluate the cost-benefit of projects of different scales. The projects of different scales are ranked according to the level of comprehensive scores. The results show that large-scale projects are cost-effective and stable over the long term,and there are differences in the main sources of pollution-caused economic losses for projects of different scales. At last,reasonable policy suggestions are made to relevant planning and management personnel.

China's Development Modeli:the Costs and Benefits of the Decentralization Approach to Transition

This article provides a coherent framework within which to understand China’s development model,as well as the successes and the failures of China’s decentralization approach to reform.The combination of political centralization and economic decentralization provide local government with enough incentives to develop local economies,in particular incentives to promote market privatisation locally.However,the relative evaluation-based incentive schemes lead to inter- regional market segmentation,increasing inter-regional development gaps and the unequal provision of certain public goods.The success of early-stage reform can be attributed to the benefits of the decentralization approach.The next stage reform should however focus on minimizing the associated costs.China’s gradualist reform can be seen as a mechanism design issue under the control of central government.Therefore,it is essential to take both the costs and benefits of the decentralization approach into account in the design of the next-stage reform package.

Cost-Benefit Assessment of Inspection and Repair Planning for Ship Structures Considering Corrosion Model Uncertainty

Owing to high costs and unnecessary inspections necessitated by the traditional inspection planning for ship structures, the risk-based inspection and repair planning should be investigated for the most cost-effective inspection. This paper aims to propose a cost-benefit assessment model of risk-based inspection and repair planning for ship structures subjected to corrosion deterioration. Then, the benefit-cost ratio is taken to be an index for the selection of the optimal inspection and repair strategy. The planning problem is formulated as an optimization problem where the benefit-cost ratio for the expected lifetime is maximized with a constraint on the minimum acceptalbe reliability index. To account for the effect of corrosion model uncertainty on the cost-benefit assessment, two corrosion models, namgly, Paik＇ s model and Guedes Soares＇ model, are adopted for analysis. A numerical example is presented to illustrate the proposed method. Sensitivity studies are also providet. The results indicate that the proposed method of risk-based cost-benefit analysis can effectively integrate the economy with reliability of the inspection and repair planning. A balance can be achieved between the risk cost and total expected inspection and repair costs with the proposed method, which is very. effective in selecting the optimal inspection and repair strategy. It is pointed out that the corrosion model uncertainty and parametric uncertaintg have a significant impact on the cost-benefit assessment of inspection and repair planning.

An Integrated Socio-Economic and Ecological Framework for Evaluating the Societal Costs and Benefits of Fishing Activities in the Pearl River Delta

This paper puts forward a model of Pearl River Delta (PRD) fishery in the South China Sea (SCS) that integrates the ecological, social and economic costs and benefits of fisheries activities in a multidisciplinary framework. In particular, an integrated ECOST model is composed of links between an ecological model constructed by Ecopath with Ecosim (EwE) software and a region Social Accounting Matrix (SAM). Then the costs and benefits of five fishing methods are compared from economic, ecological and social three dimensions base on the ECOST model. The potential effects of fishing effort reduction on fishing communication are explored by a series of dynamic simulations for a 10-year period. Key results from prediction (2005-2015) and policy simulations illustrate that fisheries of PRE are geared toward short-term economic profits at the expense of ecological gains and the whole group of societal benefits associated with fishing. However, the status quo can be improved to better levels by reducing fishing efforts.

Implementing an Information System Strategy: A Cost, Benefit, and Risk Analysis Framework for Evaluating Viable IT Alternatives in the US Federal Government

In the US Federal government, an analysis of alternatives (AoA) is required for a significant investment of resources. The AoA yields the recommended alternative from a set of viable alternatives for the investment decision. This paper presents an integrated AoA and project management framework for analyzing new or emerging alternatives (e.g., Cloud computing), as may be driven by an information system strategy that incorporates a methodology for analyzing the costs, benefits, and risks of each viable alternative. The case study in this paper, about a business improvement project to provide public health and safety services to citizens in a US Federal agency, is a practical application of this integrated framework and reveals the benefits of this integrated approach for an investment decision. The decision making process in the framework—as an integrated, organized, and adaptable set of management and control practices—offers a defensible recommendation and provides accountability to stakeholders.

A COST-BENEFIT EVALUATION OF NEONATAL SCREENING PROGRAM IN CHINA

Objective Phenylketonuria (PKU) and congenital hypothyroidism (CH) are common diseases thatare associated with mental retardation. In order to make the best use of health care resources to achieve themaximum social and economic benefits and to lay the foundation for the popularization of neonatal screening, acost- benefit analysis of neonatal screening program was undertaken. Methods Based on screening results,medical history and the data published by the national statistic departments. Results Our result shows that it islairly profitable to conduct neonatal screening in China: the cost - benejit ratio for PKU screenging is 1:3.7, andthe cost-benefit ratio for CH screening is 1:3.6. Conclusion This report therefore strongly suPPorts furtherpopularization of neonatal screening in China.

Empirical Analysis of the Typical Breeding Pattern of Clam in Hongdao Town and the Preliminary Estimates of Costs and Benefits

Based on the survey data about clam breeding farmers in Hongdao Town in August 2011,this paper analyzes the production and operation of typical clam breeding pattern,and estimates the costs and benefits. Through the analysis of operation conditions and economic conditions of Hongdao clam breeding,this paper aims to explore a more reasonable and effective breeding pattern so as to reduce breeding costs and market risks,and increase breeding farmers' income.

Study on Cost of Environmental Degradation Based on Cost-Benefit Analysis

With the rapid economic development of China,the environmental degradation brought by economic development cannot be ignored.In order to measure the cost of environmental degradation brought by land projects in the process of economic development and evaluate a land project,this paper establishes an ecological service evaluation model based on cost-benefit method to analyze the cost and benefit of land development projects from a new perspective,and explore effective strategies to alleviate environmental degradation.