Balloon-based exposed payload designed for astrobiological research in Earth’s near space

Earth’s near space,located in the region between 20 and 100 km above sea level,is characterized by extreme conditions,such as low temperature,low atmospheric pressure,harsh radiation,and extreme dryness.These conditions are analogous to those found on the surface of Mars and in the atmosphere of Venus,making Earth’s near space a unique natural laboratory for astrobiological research.To address essential astrobiological questions,teams from the Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS)have developed a scientific balloon platform,the CAS Balloon-Borne Astrobiology Platform(CAS-BAP),to study the effects of near space environmental conditions on the biology and survival strategies of representative organisms in this terrestrial analog.Here,we describe the versatile Biological Samples Exposure Payload(BIOSEP)loaded on the CAS-BAP with respect to its structure and function.The primary function of BIOSEP is to expose appropriate biological specimens to the harsh conditions of near space and subsequently return the exposed samples to laboratories for further analysis.Four successful flight missions in near space from 2019 to 2021 have demonstrated the high reliability and efficiency of the payload in communicating between hardware and software units,recording environmental data,exposing sample containers,protecting samples from external contamination,and recovering samples.Understanding the effects of Earth’s near space conditions on biological specimens will provide valuable insights into the survival strategies of organisms in extreme environments and the search for life beyond Earth.The development of BIOSEP and associated biological exposure experiments will enhance our understanding of the potential for life on Mars and the habitability of the atmospheric regions of other planets in the solar system and beyond.

Development of High-Pressure Multigrain X-Ray Diffraction for Exploring the Earth’s Interior

The lower mantle makes up more than a half of our planet’s volume. Mineralogical and petrological experiments on realistic bulk compositions under high pressure–temperature (P–T) conditions are essential for understanding deep mantle processes. Such high P–T experiments are commonly conducted in a laser-heated diamond anvil cell, producing a multiphase assemblage consisting of 100 nm to submicron crystallite grains. The structures of these lower mantle phases often cannot be preserved upon pressure quenching;thus, in situ characterization is needed. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of such a multiphase assemblage usually displays a mixture of diffraction spots and rings as a result of the coarse grain size relative to the small X-ray beam size (3–5 lm) available at the synchrotron facilities. Severe peak overlapping from multiple phases renders the powder XRD method inadequate for indexing new phases and minor phases. Consequently, structure determination of new phases in a high P–T multiphase assemblage has been extremely difficult using conventional XRD techniques. Our recent development of multigrain XRD in high-pressure research has enabled the indexation of hundreds of individual crystallite grains simultaneously through the determination of crystallographic orientations for these individual grains. Once indexation is achieved, each grain can be treated as a single crystal. The combined crystallographic information from individual grains can be used to determine the crystal structures of new phases and minor phases simultaneously in a multiphase system. With this new development, we have opened up a new area of crystallography under the high P–T conditions of the deep lower mantle. This paper explains key challenges in studying multiphase systems and demonstrates the unique capabilities of high-pressure multigrain XRD through successful examples of its applications.

Anomalies identification of Earth’s rotation rate time series (2012-2017) for possible correlation with strong earthquakes occurrence

The analysis of the Earth’s rotation rate time series,from January 1,2012 till December 31,2017,is performed using two different time series analysis methods,both based on signal decomposition joined with forecasting approach.Anomalies in the time series are detected making the comparison between the raw signal and the forecasting one at the 95% confidence interval.The two methods show consistent results and the best is selected according to the evaluation of the prediction uncertainty.Both methods highlight correlations between detected anomalies in the Earth’s rotation rate time series and the world’s earthquakes occurrence with magnitude≥7 and/or number of events≥150 per day,within a time interval of ±10 days from each earthquake event.This study brings an innovation in the analysis of such time series and helps to better understand the extent of this relationship.

Application of Clausius-Clappeyron Relation (1832) and Carnot Principle (1824) to Earth’s Atmosphere Tricellular Circulation

Atmospheric or climate phenomena are usually a combination of elementary events whose scales range from the very small (microscopic) to the infinitely large (synoptic). This means that build reasoning from ground- or space-based observations only, regardless of the physics of elementary processes, inevitably leads to erroneous results. Given the fact that plots of Troposphere Tricellular Circulation are only based on weather mean conditions measured near the ground (i.e.: pressure and winds fields observed at the surface of the earth), we want to improve these representations of the general circulation of the atmosphere, by using both Clausius-Clapeyron Relation and Carnot Principle derived respectively in 1832 and 1824. Indeed, Clausius-Clapeyron relation shows precisely that, unlike the dry water vapor that can be assimilated to the ideal gas at many circumstances, the saturated water vapor has, in an air parcel at the same time cold (temperature below 0.0098°C) and rich in moisture (vapor pressure above 6.11 mb), thermoelastic properties diametrically opposed to those of ideal gas (including dry water vapor). Vertical profiles of temperature and water vapor in the atmosphere provided by ground- or space-based observations lead to the location of a troposphere region in which the ideal gas assumption should be banned: hence appropriate and unique plot of earth’s atmosphere tricellular circulation.

Earth’s Magnetic Field—The Key to Global Warming

It is commonly known that the climate debate suffers due to a lack of knowledge about the cause and effect relationship between a number of climatic temperature variations that have occurred in history without being able to blame human emission of greenhouse gas in any way. Only when we are willing to give up the idea that there is a geodynamo deep inside of the Earth being responsible for the Earth’s magnetic field and when we get back to the idea that the origin of the magnetic field is simply ferromagnetic, will it be possible to establish two different cause and effect connections that are suitable to explain why there is an acknowledged coincidence between climatic temperature variations and an intensive, proportional variation in the strength of the Earth’s magnetic field. Such insight may easily prove to be decisive at a time when many people can no longer differentiate between politics, mass hysteria, presumptions and actual knowledge. When there are requirements that a solution to climatic temperature variations must contain the solution to the coincidence mentioned, two possible scenarios exist. The one possibility (although not very likely) that is suitable to solve the mysterious coincidence is that mainly the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean is heated from within (from the interior of the Earth) and that variations in the Earth’s emission of heat cause primarily all of Europe to have witnessed warm winters for decades. The one possible cause and effect connection may (in theory) be that inner heat in the Earth’s crust can loosen frozen, ferromagnetic structures, thereby drive the Earth’s ferromagnetic, magnetic field to restructure and be reorganised from periodically being a chaotic, magnetic field to periodically being a well-structured, ferromagnetic field. The connection between magnetism and thermal impact is already commonly known. The other and somewhat more likely cause and effect connection is building on Henrik Svensmark’s (and teams) theory that says that variations in the cosmic radiation reaching the Earth depend on the strength of the Sun’s magnetic field and that this radiation contributes to creating aerosols, thereby variations in the cloud formation. Solar storms contribute to temporarily strengthening the Earth’s magnetic field. The question is whether these contributions could also periodically have a long-term effect on the Earth’s magnetic field. In that case, this may explain the reason for the above-mentioned coincidence.

Relationships between Earth’s Rotation or Revolution and Geographical Extent of the Global Surface Monsoons

Monsoon seasons, occasionally also known as wet seasons or trade-wind littoral seasons, are found in the regions where there is a complete seasonal reversal of the prevailing surface winds. Accompanying these shifts in the prevailing surface winds are modulations in rainfall activity. Given the fact that our knowledge of the monsoons is mainly based on the interpretation of the mean values of precipitation, cloudiness and winds;relationships between earth’s rotation or revolution and geographical extent of the global surface monsoons deserve to be highlighted. In the abundant literary and audiovisual production devoted to monsoons worldwide and despite the fact that everyone agrees with physical law which shows that Coriolis force acts to the right in the northern hemisphere (to the left in the southern hemisphere), there is no reference to the relationship between Coriolis force (due to earth’s rotation) effects on troposphere general circulation and geographical extent of the global surface monsoons. Furthermore knowing that the ITCZ oscillations on either side of the equators (due to earth’s revolution) determine the seasons (mainly winter and summer), it is clear that earth’s revolution also plays a crucial role in the seasonal reversal of the prevailing surface winds observed in the regions where monsoons are found. Our main objective is to provide a rational answer to the question: what is a monsoon?

Thermonuclear Reaction as the Main Source of the Earth’s Energy

The article shows that neither radioactive decay of long-lived radioactive isotopes nor the Earth’s “primordial” heat supply can explain a huge energy formed in the Earth’s core. A hypothesis is introduced that the main source of Earth’s energy is the thermonuclear reactions in the solid inner Earth’s core which consist of hydrides of irons and other metals.

A proposed classification of the Earth’s crustal areas by the level of geodynamic threat

It is accepted as a well-known fact that in different places on the Earth’s crust,a similar anthropogenic impact causes a dissimilar response.Seismic zoning maps are not designed to predict such geodynamic hazards as rock bursts,induced earthquakes,reactivation of tectonic faults,etc.,and therefore require careful adjustments in places of intense impact on the subsurface strata.In this regard,we consider the classification of the Earth’s crustal areas according to the degree of geodynamic hazard,i.e.its potential geodynamic response to anthropogenic intervention.This classification is based on the concept that there exists a critically stressed layer within the Earth’s crust.It is believed that such a critically stressed layer within the Earth’s crust extends from the Earth’s surface to a certain depth,and each point depends on the nature of the interaction between crustal blocks of different hierarchical levels.From this perspective,anthropogenic impact,such as mining operations,represents a direct impact upon the critically stressed zone.We recognize the hypothesis that the thicker the critical stressed rock layer,the stronger the response might be to anthropogenic intervention,as it has more accumulated energy.Four categories of geodynamic threat have been found and mapped.To verify this classification,the manifestations of the geodynamic hazards were studied.The intensity of geodynamic hazard increased from the first area to the fourth area.The phenomenon of large induced seismic events with hypocenters at great depths is explained on the basis of this theory,and could be associated with anthropogenic impacts from the surface directly on the regional zone of the critically stressed rock massif.The approach can be used to assess the geodynamic consequences of human exposure to the Earth’s crust.

Fair Plan 8: Earth’s Climate Future—Pope Francis’ Population Mistake

Pope Francis wrote in his Encyclical Letter Laudato Si’: On Care for Our Common Home: “Instead of resolving the problems of the poor and thinking of how the world can be different, some can only propose a reduction in the birth rate.” … “To blame population growth instead of extreme and selective consumerism on the part of some is one way of refusing to face the issues.” Here, we test the hypothesis that population size does not matter. We do so in terms of the effect of the size of the human population on its emission of greenhouse gases. We find that the hypothesis is false = PO-PULATION MATTERS. Ceteris paribus, the larger the population of human beings on Planet Earth, the more difficult it will be to reduce, and finally eliminate, the emission of greenhouse gases by humanity and, thereby, constrain human-caused climate change = Anthropogenic Global Warming.

“In Space” or “As Space”?: Spatial Autocorrelation Properties of the Earth’s Interior

In this analysis, natural systems are posed to subsystemize in a manner facilitating both structured information/energy sharing and an entropy maximization process projecting a three-dimensional, spatial outcome. Numerical simulations were first carried out to determine whether n × n input-output matrices could, once entropy-maximized, project a three-dimensional Euclidean metric. Only 4 × 4 matrices could;a small proportion passed the test. Larger proportions passed when grouped random patterns on and within two- and three-dimensional forms were tested. The pattern of structural zonation within the earth was then tested in analogous fashion using spatial autocorrelation measures, and for three time periods: current, 95 million years b.p. and 200 million years b.p. All expected results were obtained;not only do the geometries of zonation project a three-dimensional structure as anticipated, but also do secondary statistical measures reveal levels of equilibrium among the zones in all three cases that are nearly total, distinguishing them from simulations that do not incorporate a varying-surface zone-width element.

Features of the Formation of Mineral Deposits at the Initial Stages of Formation of the Earth’s Mantle and Crust

The Purpose of the Work: The modern mantle and crust have a complex structure and, in addition, contain both thermal and material heterogeneities, as evidenced by the results of seismic and electromagnetic studies. Changes are also reflected by the change in the mineralogical and chemical composition of the matter. This structure was formed for the long geological history of the planet’s development and the process continues at the present time. The system remains unsteady. To understand the evolution of such dynamic structures, information is needed about the initial state of the system, in our case, about the state of the Earth at the final stage of its formation. It can be obtained only by the results of numerical modeling based on the results of the investigation of the evolution of isotope systems. Therefore, the purpose of the work is to identify the features of the formation of mineral deposits in the early crust and mantle. For this, it is necessary to obtain variants of the numerical solution of the problem of the formation of the planet. Solution Methods: An algorithm for solving a non-linear system of differential equations for solving a 3D boundary dynamic problem in the sphere of an increasing radius is developed. The numerical method of “through account” is used in the work. Results: Based on methods for solving boundary value problems for a system of differential equations with the use of new results of mineralogical and isotope studies of the oldest material samples, quantitative variants of the thermal evolution of the Earth, directly determining the formation of early metallogeny, are constructed. It is shown that the random distribution of particles and bodies of a protoplanetary cloud during the accumulation of the planet causes the formation of a random material and temperature composition of the growing crust and mantle, which ensured a special metallogeny of the cratons and their framing, which no longer repeated in the geological history of the planet. A special role in it was played by changes in the gravitational field during the growth of the planet and the angular velocity of the Earth’s rotation. Further Research: It is proposed to extend the results obtained to the conditions for taking into account the dynamics of the double Earth-Moon system.

From Where Did the Water Come That Filled the Earth’s Oceans? A Widely Overlooked Redox Reaction

Though two-thirds of Earth’s surface is covered by oceans, measurements of hydroxyl concentrations in upper mantle minerals, specifically in olivine, reportedly provide surprisingly low values. This has been interpreted to mean that there is little dissolved H2O in the Earth’s mantle. By inference, when Earth formed, there might not have been able enough water to fill the oceans through volcanic degassing. It has therefore been proposed that the missing water was delivered to Earth from space, through comets and other impacting bodies. However, the reported low hydroxyl concentrations in olivine and similar mineralsis probably based on a profound misunderstanding of a solid state reaction that converts hydroxyls into something more difficult to detect. There is indeed a redox reaction that converts, during cooling, solute hydroxyls in the matrix of minerals into peroxy plus H2. This widely overlooked redox conversion takes place under thermodynamic non-equilibrium conditions. Its significance is that any mineral and any rock available for collection at the Earth surface has gone through a process that causes hydroxyls, the telltale sign of dissolved H2O, to change into peroxyplusH2. The H2 molecules are diffusively mobile and may leave even structurally dense mineral grains. The remaining peroxy thus become the memory of the “true” solute H2O content, besides a few residual hydroxyls. Though first described over 30 years ago, this redox conversion has been largely ignored. As a result it is unknown how much H2O is contained in the Earth’s upper mantle but it is certainly much more than has been assumed until now on the basis of analysis of residual hydroxyls.

Secular Effect of Geomagnetic Field and Gravitational Waves on Earth’s Satellite Orbits

In this work we study the perturbation and the change in the orbital elements due to the earth’s magnetic field and the gravitational waves. The acceleration components are derived in the radial, transverse to it and normal to the orbital plane. The equation for the rates of variation of the elements is formed and solved to find the secular variation in the element for polar and equatorial satellites.

How to Heat a Planet? Impact of Anthropogenic Landscapes on Earth’s Albedo and Temperature

Today anthropogenic climate change is underway and predicted future global temperatures vary significantly. However, the drivers of current climate change and their links to Earth’s natural glacial cycle have yet to be fully resolved. Currently, many on a local level understand, and are exposed to, the heat energy generated by what’s referred to as the urban heat island effect (UHI), whereby natural flora with higher albedos is replaced by manmade urban areas with lower albedos. This heat effect is not constrained to these regions and all anthropogenic surfaces with lower albedos need to be studied and quantified as the accumulated additional heat energy (infrared energy) is trapped within Earth’s atmosphere and could affect the Earth on a planetary level. Deployed satellites have detected critical changes to Earth’s albedo to lower levels, however the cause and impact of these changes have yet to be fully understood and incorporated into Global Circulation models (GCMs). Here it’s shown that industrialization of anthropogenic landscape practices of the past century has displaced millions of square kilometres of naturally high albedo grasslands with lower albedo agricultural landscapes. Utilising a fundamental Energy Balance Model, (EBM) it’s demonstrated these specific changes have generated vast amounts of additional heat energy which is trapped by the atmosphere, transferred and stored within the oceans of the Earth as shown in Figure 1. The total additional heat energy accumulated over the preceding 110 years correlates to that required to warm the Earth to the levels seen to date, altering Earth’s overall energy budget. This energy will continue to accumulate and warm the Earth to a predicted 1.60 ± 0.20 Celsius by 2050 over 1910 levels. These findings are independent of anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas (GHG) additions and are further validated by predicting Earth’s temperature and albedo at the last glacial maxima, suggesting that an albedo cycle aligned to Gaia theory is the primary driver of Earth’s natural climate cycle.

On the Walker’ Model for the Carbon Dioxide in the Earth’s Atmosphere

Climate change is a wicked problem because it is hard to say what the problem is, and to define it clearly. However, we know that global temperature rise correlates with increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide [1] and [2]. In this paper, we analyze a model for the carbon dioxide developed by Walker in [3] with several source terms. Our numerical results show that the burning fossil fuels have an effect on the carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere and the climate change problem, one of the major global challenger of our time.

Earth’s Atmosphere Prevailing Surface Winds Based on Effectiveness of Mbane Biouele Formula Derived in 2009

Any system designed to simulate the earth's atmosphere general circulation, must necessarily be based on the spatial-or temporal average conditions. Irregularities in the profiles of air motions that we observe on daily weather maps often make lose any real meaning to the general circulation. As complicated and inconsistent that is the daily traffic of air particles, it is interesting to define a general circulation characteristic of the average air transportation around the globe. Indeed, this transport responds to a need to transfer heat from the equator (heat source) to the poles (cold sources). Mbane Biouele formula (2009), derived from Clausius-Clapeyron relation (1832), now allows faithful and unique representation of the tricellular general circulation: Hence, the possibility of access to the earth’s atmosphere prevailing surface winds in summer as well as winter.

Sources of IR Radiation in the Earth’s Atmosphere in Connection with the PeTa Effect

The PeTa (Perelman-Tatartchenko) effect is the radiation of the energy of a first-order phase transition during the transition from a less condensed phase to a more condensed one. The effect was independently discovered by M. Perelman and the author of this paper. Six papers on the PeTa effect have been published in this journal over the past nine years. They are devoted to the development of PeTa models to explain the following phenomena: IR radiation from cold surfaces, cavitation luminescence/sonoluminescence (CL/SL), laser-induced bubble luminescence (LIBL), and vapor bubble luminescence (VBL) in underwater geysers. This paper describes the sources of PeTa radiation in the Earth’s atmosphere. These sources of infrared radiation have been investigated by numerous research groups, but their interpretation either does not exist at all, or it is erroneous. The following phenomena are specifically considered: PeTa radiation during the formation of clouds and fog;a pulse laser based on the PeTa radiation;condensation explosions as sources of PaTa radiation;measurement of the concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere using PeTa radiation;atmospheric scintillation of infrared radiation in the atmosphere due to the PeTa effect;PeTa radiation as a source of comfort for the igloo;the influence of PeTa radiation on living organisms;PeTa radiation due to characteristics of tropical storms;PeTa radiation as a possible precursor to earthquakes. The problem of global warming, which worries everyone, as it turns out, is also associated with the PeTa effect.

Magnetic Structure of the Earth’s Crust in the White Sea Region

The geological structure of the White Sea area and the surrounding land areas has been well studied in the framework of individual case studies. There are a number of local models of the deep structure of the Earth’s crust available. We propose a uniform assessment of deep crustal bodies responsible for long-period (regional) magnetic anomalies and consider their correlation with surface structures. The aim of the study is to build a three-dimensional magnetic model of the Earth’s crust in the White Sea region using aeromagnetic data and modeling technologies of the Integro software package. The model is formed on the basis of a digital map of the anomalous magnetic field reduced to the pole. The sources of magnetic anomalies are considered to be located in the Earth’s crust. The 3D distribution of the relative magnetic susceptibility of rocks was obtained by solving the inverse problem of the magnetic survey. To separate the magnetic sources by frequency and depth, it was necessary to continue the magnetic field of the model upward and to calculate the TDR derivatives, which determine the lateral boundaries of the sources of positive magnetic field anomalies. 2D distributions of magnetic sources of the model for vertical and horizontal sections with depths of 10, 15 and 20 km are analyzed. The correlation between the surface and deep structures of magnetic sources of the Earth’s crust in the region is shown.

Increased Temperature and Entropy Production in the Earth’s Atmosphere: Effect on Wind, Precipitation, Chemical Reactions, Freezing and Melting of Ice and Electrical Activity

Since the late nineteenth century, until the present time, there has been an increase in the earth’s global mean surface temperature (GMST). This temperature increase has been calculated at 0.85°C over the period 1880-2012. The causes of this temperature increase include increased levels of greenhouse gases (GHG’s), variations in solar irradiance and changes in absorption and re-radiation of heat. Volcanic activity and orbital cycles work to cool the earth’s surface. A thermodynamic analysis is presented of the earth’s atmosphere. The analysis demonstrates an increase in entropy production as a result of increased GMST. An equation is derived expressing entropy production in the atmosphere based on atmospheric processes (wind, precipitation, chemical reactions, electrical activity and heat transfer). The effects of increased entropy production on wind, precipitation, freezing and melting of ice, chemical reactions and electrical activity are given showing an increase in the combination of the above phenomena.

Fair Plan 7: Earth’s Climate Future = Humanity’s Choice

Earth’s climate future is in the hands of humanity. If emissions of greenhouse gases remain unabated, Earth’s climate will return to the climate of the Late Eocene, 35 million years ago, when sea level was 73 meters (240 feet) higher than today. Should that occur, many coastal cities around the world would be inundated. Moreover the Global Warming of this unabated Reference case will be comparable to the Global Warming from the Last Glacial Maximum 21,000 years ago to the beginning of the Holocene interglacial climate 11,000 years ago. However, this human-caused Global Warming would occur 50 times faster than that caused by nature. Alternatively, humanity can mitigate greenhouse-gas emissions to keep Global Warming below the 2&#176C maximum adopted by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change “to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”. This mitigation can either be done rapidly, as in the “80/50” Plan to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions 80% by 2050, or much more slowly, from 2020 to 2100, as in the Fair Plan to Safeguard Earth’s Climate. The Fair Plan is a compromise between doing nothing, as in the Reference case, and rapidly reducing greenhouse-gas emissions, as in the 80/50 Plan. Regardless of the Plan chosen to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions to keep Global Warming below the UNFCCC limit of 2&#176C (3.6&#176F), it should not be tantamount to our saying to one of our planetary spacecraft, Bon Voyage, call us when you get to your planetary destination. Rather, as with our spacecraft, the chosen climate-change policy should be monitored throughout the 21st century and Midcourse Corrections made thereto as needed to keep our “Climate Spacecraft” on track to achieve its “Climate Target”.