Importance of risk assessment,endoscopic hemostasis,and recent advancements in the management of acute non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding

Acute non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding(ANVUGIB)is a common medical emergency in clinical practice.While the incidence has significantly reduced,the mortality rates have not undergone a similar reduction in the last few decades,thus presenting a significant challenge.This editorial outlines the key causes and risk factors of ANVUGIB and explores the current standards and recent updates in risk assessment scoring systems for predicting mortality and endoscopic treatments for achieving hemostasis.Since ANUVGIB predominantly affects the elderly population,the impact of comorbidities may be responsible for the poor outcomes.A thorough drug history is important due to the increasing use of antiplatelet agents and anticoagulants in the elderly.Early risk stratification plays a crucial role in deciding the line of management and predicting mortality.Emerging scoring systems such as the ABC(age,blood tests,co-morbidities)score show promise in predicting mortality and guiding clinical decisions.While conventional endoscopic therapies remain cornerstone approaches,novel techniques like hemostatic powders and over-the-scope clips offer promising alternatives,particularly in cases refractory to traditional modalities.By integrating validated scoring systems and leveraging novel therapeutic modalities,clinicians can enhance patient care and mitigate the substantial morbidity and mortality associated with ANVUGIB.

Upper non-variceal gastrointestinal bleeding-review the effectiveness of endoscopic hemostasis methods

Upper non-variceal gastrointestinal bleeding is a conditionthat requires immediate medical intervention and has a high associated mortality rate(exceeding 10%). The vast majority of upper gastrointestinal bleeding cases are due to peptic ulcers. Helicobacter pylori infection, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and aspirin are the main risk factors for peptic ulcer disease. Endoscopic therapy has generally been recommended as the firstline treatment for upper gastrointestinal bleeding as it has been shown to reduce recurrent bleeding, the need for surgery and mortality. Early endoscopy(within 24 h of hospital admission) has a greater impact than delayed endoscopy on the length of hospital stay and requirement for blood transfusion. This paper aims to review and compare the efficacy of the types of endoscopic hemostasis most commonly used to control non-variceal gastrointestinal bleeding by pooling data from the literature.

Successful endoscopic hemostasis for gastric arterial bleeding due to invasion of malignant lymphoma

A 75-year-old male with malignant lymphoma (ML) accompanied with gastric lesion was treated with combination chemotherapy. The patient produced tarry stool on the 4th d, and emergency gastroscopy showed arterial bleeding from the lesion. Hemostasis was achieved by injecting pure ethanol and using hemostatic clips. There is only one previous report on endoscopic hemostasis being effective for bleeding due to lymphoma. Since gastric bleeding causes significant mortality, endoscopic hemostasis should be considered as first-line treatment for ML patients who were treated with chemotherapy.

Sepsis caused by endoscopic clipping for colonic diverticular bleeding: A rare complication

We herein report the rare complication of sepsis caused by endoscopic clipping for colonic diverticular bleeding. A 78-year-old man with a 12-h history of near syncope and painless hematochezia was admitted to our hospital. Following the transfusion of 4 U of blood and continued hematochezia, a colonoscopy was performed. Active bleeding was seen as continuous arterial spurting from a single diverticulum located in the middle ascending colon. This diverticulum was seamed by four endoclips. The next day, the patient became febrile with a temperature of 39.2℃. Laboratory data included a white blood cell count of 18 100/mm3 and a C-reactive protein level of 3.4 mg/dL. He was diagnosed with sepsis since Escherichia coli was detected in the blood culture. Antibiotics were started. Four days later his fever had improved and laboratory data improved 9 d later.

Hemostasis of massive bleeding from esophageal tumor:A case report

BACKGROUND Esophageal cancer is a common type of cancer and serious bleeding from esophageal tumors can occur in routine clinical practice.The arrest of bleeding from esophageal tumor is not a trivial task,which can sometimes require non-standard solutions.We report a case of successful hemostasis of massive bleeding from esophageal tumor performed by a novel two-balloon catheter inserted endoscopically,with a local hemostatic treatment applied.CASE SUMMARY A 36-years old male patient with advanced esophageal cancer developed bleeding from the tumor following endoscopic stenting with a self-expanding metal stent.Due to the ineffectiveness of standard approaches,after a medical conference,the patient was treated with a novel method based on the use of a two-balloon catheter creating an isolated area in esophagus and locally dispersing hemostatic polysaccharide powder inside the isolated interior.Hemostasis was successful and subsequent endoscopic examination revealed the presence of organized clot and localized defect,which was coagulated in a planned manner.CONCLUSION The authors present a new catheter-based method of hemostasis of esophageal tumor bleeding.

Successful endoscopic removal of a giant upper esophageal inflammatory fi brous polyp

Giant esophageal inflammatory fibrous polyp （espedally 〉 17 cm in size） is seen rarely. Endoscopic removal has been reported rarely because the procedure is technically demanding and the hemostasis is difficult to ascertain. Here, we describe a case of a giant upper esophageal inflammatory fibrous polyp that was resected successfully by endoscopy.

Effectiveness of antibiotic prophylaxis for acute esophageal variceal bleeding in patients with band ligation: A large observational study

BACKGROUND Esophageal variceal bleeding is a severe complication associated with liver cirrhosis and typically necessitates endoscopic hemostasis.The current standard treatment is endoscopic variceal ligation(EVL),and Western guidelines recom-mend antibiotic prophylaxis following hemostasis.However,given the impro-vements in prognosis for variceal bleeding due to advancements in the management of bleeding and treatments of liver cirrhosis and the global concerns regarding the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria,there is a need to reassess the use of routine antibiotic prophylaxis after hemostasis.AIM To evaluate the effectiveness of antibiotic prophylaxis in patients treated for EVL.METHODS We conducted a 13-year observational study using the Tokushukai medical database across 46 hospitals.Patients were divided into the prophylaxis group(received antibiotics on admission or the next day)and the non-prophylaxis group(did not receive antibiotics within one day of admission).The primary outcome was composed of 6-wk mortality,4-wk rebleeding,and 4-wk spontaneous bacterial peritonitis(SBP).The secondary outcomes were each individual result and in-hospital mortality.A logistic regression with inverse probability of treatment weighting was used.A subgroup analysis was conducted based on the Child-Pugh classification to determine its influence on the primary outcome measures,while sensitivity analyses for antibiotic type and duration were also performed.RESULTS Among 980 patients,790 were included(prophylaxis:232,non-prophylaxis:558).Most patients were males under the age of 65 years with a median Child-Pugh score of 8.The composite primary outcomes occurred in 11.2%of patients in the prophylaxis group and 9.5%in the non-prophylaxis group.No significant differences in outcomes were observed between the groups(adjusted odds ratio,1.11;95%confidence interval,0.61-1.99;P=0.74).Individual outcomes such as 6-wk mortality,4-wk rebleeding,4-wk onset of SBP,and in-hospital mortality were not significantly different between the groups.The primary outcome did not differ between the Child-Pugh subgroups.Similar results were observed in the sensitivity analyses.CONCLUSION No significant benefit to antibiotic prophylaxis for esophageal variceal bleeding treated with EVL was detected in this study.Global reassessment of routine antibiotic prophylaxis is imperative.

个性化鼻腔填塞在鼻内镜术后的应用

鼻内镜手术广泛运用于临床,目前术后用的填塞材料众多,有凡士林纱条、明胶海绵、膨胀止血海绵、瑞纳凝胶气囊和藻酸钙纤维填塞的报道。结合它们的止血效果以及使患者产生的适感度,目前我科室常规使用的是膨胀止血海绵。如何更好的使用膨胀止血海绵,达到更好的效果,我科室对鼻内镜下鼻中隔黏膜下切除术后膨胀止血海绵填塞作了个性化处理,并观察比较了它们的通气情况、疼痛不适程度以及拔除填塞物后情况,报道如下。

膨胀海绵外套胶皮在鼻腔填塞中的应用

鼻腔填塞是鼻出血、鼻腔及鼻窦手术后止血的主要治疗措施。对于填塞方法的改进也有很多论述,如使用个性化填塞[1]。我科自2013年3~11月将Merocel膨胀海绵与自制Merocel膨胀海绵外套胶皮填塞物用于鼻腔及鼻窦术后进行比较,现报道如下。1.1临床资料。鼻中隔偏曲、慢性鼻-鼻窦炎手术住院治疗患者73例,男45例,女28例,年龄18~75岁,平均44岁。1.2方法。根据填塞材料不同分为两组：1观察组38例,填塞自制Merocel膨胀海绵外套胶皮。

全身麻醉鼻内镜下隐蔽部位顽固性鼻出血的治疗

鼻腔嗅裂、中鼻道、下鼻道等狭窄隐蔽部位出血,局麻下止血治疗比较棘手。因出血点位于鼻腔中后段隐蔽部位且鼻出血较凶猛,或因患者精神紧张、鼻出血加重、疼痛及咽反射敏感等不能很好配合,难以找到出血点,以至于多次鼻腔填塞仍未能止血,给患者身心造成很大的痛苦,严重影响患者身体健康甚至危及生命。

Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in operated stomach: Outcome of 105 cases

AIM: To compare the causes and clinical outcome of patients with acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding (AUGB) and a history of gastric surgery to those with AUGB but without a history of gastric surgery in the past.METHODS: The causes and clinical outcome were compared between 105 patients with AUGB and a history of gastric surgery, and 608 patients with AUGB but without a history of gastric surgery.RESULTS: Patients who underwent gastric surgery in the past were older (mean age: 68.1±11.7 years vs 62.8±17.8 years, P= 0.001), and the most common cause of bleeding was marginal ulcer in 63 patients (60%). No identifiable source of bleeding could be found in 22 patients (20.9%) compared to 42/608 (6.9%) in patients without a history of gastric surgery (P = 0.003). Endoscopic hemostasis was permanently successful in 26 out of 35 patients (74.3%) with peptic ulcers and active bleeding or non-bleeding visible vessel. Nine patients (8.6%) were operated due to continuing or recurrent bleeding,compared to 23/608 (3.8%) in the group of patients without gastric surgery in the past (P= 0.028). Especially in peptic ulcer bleeding patients, emergency surgery was more common in the group of patients with gastric surgery in the past [9/73 (12.3%) vs 19/360 (5.3%), P = 0.025].Moreover surgically treated patients in the past required more blood transfusion (3.3±4.0 vs 1.5±1.7, P = 0.0001) and longer hospitalization time (8.6±4.0 vs 6.9±4.9 d,P = 0.001) than patients without a history of gastric surgery. Mortality was not different between the two groups [4/105 (3.8%) vs 19/608 (3.1%)].CONCLUSION: Upper gastrointestinal bleeding seems to be more severe in surgically treated patients than in non-operated patients.

Outcome of non-variceal acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in relation to the time of endoscopy and the experience of the endoscopist: A two-year survey

AIM: To prospectively assess the impact of time of endoscopy and endoscopist's experience on the outcome of non-variceal acute upper gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding patients in a large teaching hospital.METHODS: All patients admitted for non-variceal acute upper GI bleeding for over a 2-year period were potentially eligible for this study. They were managed by a team of seven endoscopists on 24-h call whose experience was categorized into two levels (high and low) according to the number of endoscopic hemostatic procedures undertaken before the study. Endoscopic treatment was standardized according to Forrest classification of lesions as well as the subsequent medical therapy. Time of endoscopy was subdivided into two time periods: routine (8 a.m.-5 p.m.) and on-call (5 p.m.-8 a.m.). For each category of experience and time periods rebleeding rate, transfusion requirement, need for surgery, length of hospital stay and mortality we compared. Multivariate analysis was used to discriminate the impact of different variables on the outcomes that were considered.RESULTS: Study population consisted of 272 patients (mean age 67.3 years) with endoscopic stigmata of hemorrhage. The patients were equally distributed among the endoscopists, whereas only 19% of procedures were done out of working hours. Rockall score and Forrest classification at admission did not differ between time periods and degree of experience.Univariate analysis showed that higher endoscopist's experience was associated with significant reduction in rebleeding rate (14% vs 37%), transfusion requirements (1.8±0.6 vs 3.0±1.7 units) as well as surgery (4% vs 10%), but not associated with the length of hospital stay nor mortality. By contrast, outcomes did not significantly differ between the two time periods of endoscopy.On multivariate analysis, endoscopist's experience was independently associated with rebleeding rate and transfusion requirements. Odds ratios for low experienced endoscopist were 4.47 for rebleeding and 6.90 for need of transfusion after the endoscopy.CONCLUSION: Endoscopist's experience is an important independent prognostic factor for non-variceal acute upper GI bleeding. Urgent endoscopy should be undertaken preferentially by a skilled endoscopist as less expert staff tends to underestimate some risk lesions with a negative influence on hemostasis.

功能性鼻内镜术后不填塞术腔观察

功能性鼻内镜手术（functional endoscopic surgery，FESS）是目前耳鼻咽喉科开展的最广泛的一种手术方式，它开展多年，手术方式发生了很大变化，手术创伤也明显减轻，但在术后填塞方面基本上延续了传统的方法。近年来对术腔止血敷料有多种选择填塞，如凡士林油纱条、止血膨胀海绵、止血纱布，甚至有硅胶扩张引流管等。但这些传统鼻内镜术后的鼻腔止血通常是依靠鼻腔填塞实现，患者不仅在意手术本身造成的痛苦，也十分关注术后填塞物尚未取出时的不适感，及抽取填塞物时的痛苦。Stammberger认为，功能性内镜鼻窦手术术后可不进行术腔填塞。近年来，国内学者也有这方面的研究并取得很好的疗效。

Visibility of the bleeding point in acute rectal hemorrhagic ulcer using red dichromatic imaging:A case report

BACKGROUND Red dichromatic imaging(RDI)is a novel image-enhanced endoscopy expected to improve the visibility of the bleeding point.However,it has not been thoroughly investigated.CASE SUMMARY A 91-year-old man developed a sudden massive hematochezia and underwent emergent colonoscopy.An ulcer with pulsatile bleeding was found on the lower rectum.Due to massive bleeding,the exact location of the bleeding point was not easy to detect with white light imaging(WLI).Upon switching to RDI,the bleeding point appeared in deeper yellow compared to the surrounding blood.Thus,RDI enabled us for easier recognition of the bleeding point,and hemostasis was achieved successfully.Furthermore,we reviewed endoscopic images and evaluated the color difference between the bleeding point and surrounding blood for WLI and RDI.In our case,the color difference of RDI was greater than that of WLI(9.75 vs 6.61),and RDI showed a better distinguished bleeding point from the surrounding blood.CONCLUSION RDI may improve visualization of the bleeding point by providing better contrast in color difference relative to surrounding blood.

Impact of epinephrine volume on further bleeding due to high-risk peptic ulcer disease in the combination therapy era

BACKGROUND In monotherapy studies for bleeding peptic ulcers,large volumes of epinephrine were associated with a reduction in rebleeding.However,the impact of epinephrine volume in patients treated with combination endoscopic therapy remains unclear.AIM To assess whether epinephrine volume was associated with bleeding outcomes in individuals who also received endoscopic thermal therapy and/or clipping.METHODS Data from 132 patients with Forrest class Ia,Ib,and IIa peptic ulcers were reviewed.The primary outcome was further bleeding at 7 d;secondary outcomes included further bleeding at 30 d,need for additional therapeutic interventions,post-endoscopy blood transfusions,and 30-day mortality.Logistic and linear regression and Cox proportional hazards analyses were performed.RESULTS There was no association between epinephrine volume and all primary and secondary outcomes in multivariable analyses.Increased odds for further bleeding at 7 d occurred in patients with elevated creatinine values(aOR 1.96,95%CI 1.30-3.20;P<0.01)or hypotension requiring vasopressors(aOR 6.34,95%CI 1.87-25.52;P<0.01).Both factors were also associated with all secondary outcomes.CONCLUSION Epinephrine maintains an important role in the management of bleeding ulcers,but large volumes up to a range of 10-20 mL are not associated with improved bleeding outcomes among individuals receiving combination endoscopic therapy.Further bleeding is primarily associated with patient factors that likely cannot be overcome by increased volumes of epinephrine.However,in carefully-selected cases where ulcer location or size pose therapeutic challenges or when additional modalities are unavailable,it is conceivable that increased volumes of epinephrine may still be beneficial.

隐蔽难治性鼻出血诊疗策略

鼻出血是耳鼻咽喉科常见急症,最常见、易处理的是鼻中隔利特尔区出血。但有些部位特殊、难以发现出血点,常规填塞无效,甚至前后鼻孔联合填塞亦难以控制的、短时间内频繁大量的鼻出血,被习惯的称为难治性鼻出血。总结多年鼻内镜下处理鼻出血的经验,从2002年开始我们自行制定了“鼻内镜下鼻出血处理流程”,采取相对固定的诊疗程序,成功率大有提高,撰文总结如下。

An update on the management of non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding

Upper gastrointestinal bleeding(UGIB)continues to be a common gastrointestinal emergency that carries significant morbidity and mortality.The epidemiology of UGIB has been changing over the last few decades with an overall decrease in peptic ulcer disease and increase in the prevalence of other etiologies including vascular lesions and malignancy.Appropriate risk assessment and patient stratification are crucial to ensuring that optimal care is delivered to patients and some risk assessment tools have shown excellent ability to define a low-risk group who can be managed as outpatients safely.Regardless of the etiology of UGIB,resuscitative interventions by primary care providers remain the most important initial measures to improve the outcome for patients including hemodynamic stabilization,an appropriate blood transfusion strategy,with or without acid-lowering agents,while also providing subsequent urgent endoscopic assessment and intervention.In addition,with increasing use of antithrombotic agents in clinical practice and its associated risk of bleeding,the management of such agents in the acute setting has become a real challenge to all physicians.In this article,we provide an up-to-date,evidence-based,practical review of recent changes and advances in UGIB with a focus on non-variceal etiologies.