THE HISTORY AND STATUS OF GEOPOLITICS AND THE GEOPOLITICAL STRATEGIES OF CHINA

Taking the rising and declining in Geopolitics as the main lines, this paper reviews the history of the annihilation, revival and deveopment in geoplitics since the 1970s. The ideas and propositions about the world geopolitical structure after the end of Cold War, proposed by the Westem geopolitical strategists, have been introduced and assessed. About the geopolitical strategies of China in the world geopolotical structure in the future, the authors propose framework ideas. The aim of the paper is to join discussions and researches on the geopolitical strategies, and to promote the subject construction and development of human geography including Geopolitics and Political Geography.

Geopolitics of global climate change and energy security

Currently,the problem of climate change is already far beyond the category of scientific research,and it affects the economic operation mode,interests pattern,and geographical relationships and becomes the focus of global governance.During the transition period of the international economic and social development and the critical transformation period of the world geopolitical pattern reorganization,China's industrialization is still at the intermediate stage,and tackling with climate change is also China's internal demand under this development stage.With more influence of climate change on national competitiveness,climate change and geopolitics present complex multiple relations,and climate change in the era of geopolitical landscape gradually affected the national strategy and diplomacy.This article offered some relevant suggestions based on evaluating the new geopolitical characteristics of climate change:(1)weighing of interests and properly handling the complex relations among major powers during international climate negotiations;(2)strengthening risk judgments and actively cooperating with the United States and the European Union on energy and climate change;(3)relying on the"One Belt(Silk Road Economic Belt)and One Road(twenty-first century Maritime Silk Road)"to ensure China's energy security and actively participating in the global energy governance;(4)strengthening the"south-south cooperation"mechanism innovation and increasing the investment.

Victor Nozadze on Geopolitics of the Caucasus

The paper deals with the political visions of a famous Georgian scientist and public figure Victor Nozadze （1893-1975）. It refers to Nozadze＇s attempts to comprehend Georgia and Caucasus through the concepts and categories of the new discipline of those times--geopolitics. The study uncovers the main propositions of his work On the Geopolitics of the Caucasus （A Struggle for Oil） which could be considered as one of the seminal works in the history of the geopolitical thought of Georgia. The paper argues that Nozadze was significantly influenced by the works of a German geo-politician Erich Obst and he became interested in the problems of geopolitics through the publications appearing in the Journal of Geopolitics. The study proves that geopolitical analysis of Obst and Nozadze are not contradictory; rather they deal with the different geopolitical aspects. The study proposes the geopolitical conception of Victor Nozadze, which could be formulated as follows： for the empires of the old and contemporary times of Caucasus was ＂an area of growth and enlargement＂, ＂an area of competition of geopolitical powers＂, the place where ＂all imperial powers clash each-other＂, ＂Caucasus was and remains an area of competition of geopolitical powers.＂ According to Victor Nozadze, the Transcaucasia was a single entity in geographic terms and due to its geographical location Georgia always strove towards acquiring a leading role in the unification of the Caucasus. He assumed that Georgia should have maintained the same role in the future as well. Although he was well aware of those aspects which hindered the unity of the Caucasus： contradictions between Armenia and Azerbaijan, as well as the different foreign orientations of these people. Although he considered continuation of attempts for unification of the Caucasus as a necessity and tried to justify this claim through the norms and rules of geopolitics.

The Development and Game of US Digital Diplomacy Under Geopolitics

As the evolution of public diplomacy,digital diplomacy uses Internet and new communication technologies to help achieve diplomatic goals.As early as 2006,the United States began to actively develop cyber diplomacy in order to maintain and develop the broad interests of the United States in cyberspace.However,in recent years,the US digital diplomacy has encountered internal and external communication barriers,especially after the 2008 financial crisis,the US government no longer has the strength to support its diplomatic actions.At the same time,a small number of large technology companies are beginning to compete for geopolitical influence using their own financial and technological advantages as well,including Tesla President Musk,whose expansion in Starlink technology in the Ukraine crisis is an act of bringing his own funds technology to participate in U.S.digital diplomacy.

Energy geopolitics in Central Asia:China’s involvement and responses

To ensure adequate oil supply and mitigate geopolitical uncertainties,China has diversified its sources of crude oil imports in recent years.Central Asia is a neighbor region of China,rich in oil and natural gas reserves,which can play an important role in China's strategy to reduce its dependence on energy supplies from the Middle East.The geopolitical attributes of energy and the geopolitical situation in Central Asia determine that Central Asia's energy development and cooperation are disturbed by domestic and foreign factors,and also face the risks of complex energy structural evolution and geopolitical games,which create a unique energy geopolitical pattern in Central Asia.This study proposes an analysis framework for energy geopolitics in Central Asia,arguing that the complexity of energy geopolitics in Central Asia can be demonstrated from the perspectives of both the main countries of energy development(game actors)and the whole-industry-chain of energy development(game themes).The most obvious feature of Central Asian energy geopolitics is the fierce game that is played between key countries and regions,Russia,the United States,China,the European Union(EU),Japan,India,Iran,and Turkey.Strategic geopolitical considerations and resource requirements necessitate the active participation of these players in Central Asian energy development and mean that the foreign policy agendas of states in this region are likely to become ever more crowded.Therefore,the energy cooperation between China and Central Asia faces the geopolitical risks of the great power games.It is necessary to develop reasonable and effective policies to establish guarantee mechanisms to minimize the risks of energy cooperation.This study characterizes the energy geopolitical strategies of Russia,the United States,China,and other related powers in Central Asia.It also assesses the country risks faced by energy cooperation between China and Central Asian countries.To withstand possible geopolitical and country risks,this study develops a series of policy frameworks which can be used to fortify the stability of the energy cooperation between China and Central Asian countries,and can also be effective in responding to the array of risks that might be encountered in the coming years.

Geopolitics of the energy transition

Geopolitics of energy transition has increasingly become the frontier and hot research area of world energy geography and global political science.Different historical periods are characterised by obvious differences in energy connotations,attributes,and geopolitical characteristics.In the new energy era,energy geopolitics becomes more diversified,complex,and comprehensive.In this paper,we compare the geopolitical characteristics of energy in the fossil fuel and renewable energy periods,and provide an overview of current study trends in new energy geopolitics.Recent research shows that the global energy transition will intensify the reconstruction of geopolitical patterns,change the relationship between geopolitical security and conflict dominated by traditional energy security,alter the role of different countries in global energy geopolitical games,reshape national energy relationships formed in the traditional oil and gas era.In addition,geopolitics will be affected by new energy technologies,availability of key rare materials,and energy cybersecurity measures.Despite considerable attention to this research topic,the likely geopolitical impact of energy transition remains uncertain,and there is still room for the development and improvement of the theoretical framework,technical methods,and research perspective.Looking forward to the future,the research into geopolitics of energy transition urgently needs to strengthen its theoretical basis and rely on the scientific and quantitative methods.The practical conclusions of the research into geopolitics of energy transition should strengthen major national energy security decisions,explore the geographical effect of energy transition,and determine the impact of energy transition on energy security.Research into geopolitics of energy transition should be carried out taking into account international academic frontiers such as climate change,“carbon peak”and“carbon neutral”goals,and global energy governance,to enrich the research perspective of world energy geography.

Twenty-five years of progress in geopolitics research： Efforts from China＇s geographers

The world is currently undergoing profound changes, with a shift in global power centers and reordering of international power spaces, assigning new theoretical tasks as well as providing new opportunities for geopolitics research in China. Despite the peripheral nature of geopolitics research within their discipline, geographers have played a fundamental role in its origins and revival, from classical geopolitics（i.e., the German school of geopolitics and the Anglo-American school of geo-strategy）, to internal geopolitics（i.e., electoral geography and administrative geography）, to the new geopolitics（i.e., formal geopolitics）, and to recent critical geopolitics（i.e., popular geopolitics）. Although only few of these researchers were from China, great strides have been made in geopolitics and political geography research in China, with useful results being obtained. After demonstrating the importance of geopolitics research for the rising China, this review provides an overview of geopolitics papers led by China＇s geographers in the past few decades, describing their achievements, the problems they have faced, and the directions they have taken. Twenty-five years of geopolitics have produced a range of accomplishments, with a growth in the quality and size of research groups and institutions, an expanding literature, and some geo-strategic breakthroughs. Obviously, geographers have successfully reclaimed geopolitics, but some crucial topics are still absent or weak in the geopolitical research agenda, and need to be pursued vigorously. Most of the attention, from a positivistic perspective, has been paid to reflecting Western geopolitical thoughts, describing patterns of international power relations, and offering foreign policy advice（in a problem-focused orientation）, rather than determining mechanisms and performing theoretical analyses（in a theoretical orientation）, resulting in a lack of independent value judgments and of a theoretical basis for the subject. Moreover, in comparison with other disciplines, in terms of its academic community, research output, and status as a discipline, geopolitics research is very different from how it was three or four decades ago, when it was mainly the property of geographers, rather than political scientists and diplomats. For now, whether to support national geo-strategies or to enhance the diversity of the discipline, the involvement of geographers in geopolitics needs to become both more intensive and more extensive. The top priority is to strengthen theoretical, methodological, and problem- oriented research, including studies of geopolitical philosophy and methodology, the theoretical framework of the subject, global geopolitical evolution and shifts in power space, the roles of major powers and their geo-strategies, as well as China＇s surrounding geopolitical environment.

A Study on the Structural Contradictions in the US-Turkey Alliance Relations

After the Cold War and especially since the Justice and Development Party administration led by Erdogan,the US-Turkey alliance relations have declined.The two countries have sharp structural contradictions on a series of issues.Due to the profound geopolitical landscape changes,the interdependence on security and defense between the United States and Turkey has been severely weakened,leading to significant divergence in threat definition and pursuit of interests.Turkey has continuously enhanced its diplomatic autonomy,seeking to change its weak position in the original alliance relations,and striving to become a regional leader.These structural contradictions inevitably trigger the hedging of policies and interests between the United States and Turkey.

India's Arctic Policy:a critical appraisal

After much procrastination,the Indian government has released its much awaited and delayed Arctic Policy document on 17 March 22 with the theme being“Building a Partnership for Sustainable Development”.It has been 15 years since India commenced its scientific research in the Arctic region and this policy document,charting out the direction that India aspires to assume will be keenly examined by the diverse stakeholders of the region.Despite being an Arctic Council observer for nearly a decade,India continues to view the Arctic from a mere scientific prism and yet again missed on the opportunity to elucidate her geo-economic,geostrategic,economic and geopolitical aspirations in the hugely vital region.There is no gainsaying that the research bases discreetly also act as pillars of geopolitical engagement and indirectly this scientific diplomacy ushers in peace and prevent conflict situations yet a holistic national policy enunciating a roadmap and vision for dealing in a region which has eight sovereign states,thirteen sovereign states as observers,various intergovernmental and inter-parliamentarian outfits,NGOs and a complex governance structure was much awaited.

Bridging Civilizations From Asia to Europe： The Silk Road

Throughout history, Silk Road played an important role with connecting more than 50 countries between its endpoints. Reviving this ancient trade route is a contemporary discussion among politicians. There are many projects realized and proposed for the resurgence of the modem Silk Road, including the railroad project connecting Baku, Tiflis and Kars of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey; the undersea rail tunnel under the Bosphorus strait, Marmaray; the Silk Road Economic Belt proposed by China; and the Maritime Silk Road, again proposed by China. Just like the original Silk Road, it was not only a route for caravans or trade, but it was a meeting point for cultural, religious, and philosophical exchanges that served humanity for centuries; today＇s modem Silk Road initiatives should be considered as bridges between Eastern and Western civilizations that will serve the same purpose of its ancient predecessor. The revived Silk Road will facilitate strengthening of relationships in between countries that experienced harmony in history. The railways, transportation facilities, transnational gates, energy corridors, and natural gas pipelines that constitute the Silk Road will transform the region with improving its economy and bringing peace and economic prosperity. With recent developments, it witnesses the importance of geopolitical and historical ties in establishing contemporary alliances. Although there are great expectations with the revival of the modern Silk Road, authors would like to emphasize that it should be an agreement to foster shared interests rather than the interest of bigger partners.

The Advent of Competing Foreign Powers in the Geostrategic Horn of Africa： Analysis of Opportunity and Security Risk for Ethiopia

This paper examines the opportunity and security implication of the advent of competing foreign powers in the geostrategic Horn of Africa for Ethiopia. Accordingly, the paper argues that since the advent of competing foreign powers in Horn of Africa is both an opportunity and security risk for Ethiopia, there is a need for a rational and assertive foreign policy aimed at utilizing the opportunity, minimizing the risk and countering neo-colonialism and ＂Clientelism＂. Methodologically, the study employed qualitative research methodology. Accordingly, the study used secondary source of data; collected from books, published journal articles, published and unpublished theses and dissertation, governmental and non-governmental organization reports and remarks, magazines and other internet sources. To substantiate the data, the paper also used primary data collected through key informant interviews. Given the data gathered are qualitative, the study employed qualitative data analysis techniques. The fmding of the study shows that Horn of Africa has become ＂an athletic field＂ of foreign powers. It can be argued that the region has become ＂a military garrison＂： US, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, China and Saudi Arabia have already established their military base at Djibouti. Thus, the militarization of the Horn is both an opportunity as well as a risk for Ethiopia, a nucleus and landlocked country of the sub-region. It is an opportunity in areas of military, regional stability, accelerating factor of regional integration and economic worth. However, these opportunities are largely determined by the Ethiopia＇s diplomatic utmost effort and policy reorientation. Despite these opportunities, the rise of foreign powers in the Horn of Africa has a security risk： national security, economic, political and military. Therefore, Ethiopia needs a rational and assertive foreign policy to utilize the opportunities and at times to minimize the security risk. First, in domestic policy setting constitutionalism is highly needed which is imperative. Second, regionally, Ethiopia must stabilize and normalize its relation with Eritrea. Moreover, Ethiopia must strength its relation with all of its neighbors. Third, Ethiopia must maintain a good relation with foreign powers that already established a military base in Djibouti. In this regard, over-reliance on some foreign powers and neglecting others, becoming an instrument of foreign powers must be avoided. Rather Ethiopia must use a rational policy and at times must follow the foreign policy of Emperor Menelik ＂playing one foreign power over the other＂. Moreover, emphasis also should be given to the importance of collective security. Finally, Ethiopia and the region must work towards countering neo-colonialism and patron-client relations. Falling to adopt countering strategy may be quoted as ＂neo-colonialism and Clientelism＂ by invitation.

Industrial Policy and the Great Power Competition

Since the end of the Cold War,major powers have avoided direct military confrontation,wary of the devastating consequences of nuclear warfare.Yet the arms race and regional conflicts remain important forms of power competition.Nonetheless,in the era of globalization,rapid advancements in new technologies and industries have eclipsed the utility of geopolitical maneuvers and military competition.In today’s world,the great power competition goes beyond the arms race and GDP aggregates.What matters more is the race to innovate and apply new technologies through a complete range of industrial sectors.In a world where technology has a controlling influence,industrial security has become the linchpin of national security.As globalization reshapes the world’s industrial landscape,a country’s economic influence,military might and national security depend increasingly on its industrial structure.National security is contingent upon industrial strength.In the era of globalization,industrial policy,cutting-edge technologies and market size are dominant factors influencing a country’s competitive position.The essence of the great power competition are industrial policies that fully unlock a country’s industrial potential and implementation of the policies.

Role of Geoscience in Building a Sustainable World:Energy Perspective

"We have the brain power and even money power; what we need is a sense of urgency to harness these systems in a big way so that we would become self-reliant in energy,not in the distant future."Man’s quest for exploring the material resources hidden beneath the land and water has been ceaseless since time immortal.In fact, our history is a chronicle of man’s achievements in harnessing nature’s bounty.With the ever

THE WATER RESOURCES IN THE EUPHRATES RIVER AND THE TIGRIS RIVER VALLEYS AND POLITICAL RELATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES CONCERNED

Recently at home and abroad there appears a view that owing to scarcity of the water resources and rapid increase in population in the Middle East and existing of large rivers, such as the Euphrates River and the Tigris River, the contradictions over the water resources have become increasingly sharp among the countries concerned, and a war for water will soon break out in the region. The authors of the present paper, however, put forward a different view, believing that no war for controlling the water resources will take place in the region.

Revelation of Multinational Acquisition Theory for Chinese Oil Companies’ Overseas Investment

This paper introduces multinational acquisition theory and explains its importance in the context of Chinese petroleum industry and overseas acquisition activities of three major oil companies, CNPC, SINOPEC and CNOOC. Strategic options for their overseas investment are recommended and further assessed in terms of geopolitics.

Myanmar＇s Political Transition and the Adjustments of U Thein Sein Administra-tion＇s Policies towards China

During 2010-2011, Myanmar started its political transition. The U Thein SeinAdministration has made obvious policy adjustments towards China after it replaced the Mili-tary government. However, such adjustments were limited, as Myanmar hasn＇t totally lean tothe West, but keeping relatively closer political contact with China. Empirical analysis showsthat political institu6on and ideology are not the key reasons leading to such adjustments？China-Myanmar relations had undergone fluctuation, osdlla6on and stability during 2011-2016, the root causes of which are the legality of political power, national security based ongeopolitics and economic development demands of＂ Myanmar people. Moreover, those threefactors remain the primary considerations of the NLD Government when it handling relationswith China.

An Analysis of Lancang-Mekong Cooperation Mechanism in China’s Neighboring Diplomacy

The Indochina Peninsula is of special and important significance to China's geopolitical strategy,which is the foothold of China's strategy in Southeast Asia and even the whole Asia-Pacific region,as well as the strategic springboard of*China s global development.In 2016,China led the establishment of the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation mechanism,and achieved remarkable results in terms of institutional development,project implementation and the construction of international relations among member states in the short term.The establishment and rapid development of the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation is based on member states,strong willingness to cooperate.It also benefits from the rational design of their institutional structures,geographical advantages,strong and complementary economies,and close sociocultural similarities.On the other hand,the further development of the Lancang?Mekong Cooperation is facing many risks and challenges as a result of the complexities of the internal environment of the Indochina Peninsula and the geopolitical competition of extraterritorial forces in the region.In this regard,China should make more efforts to improve relevant institutional arrangements for the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation,broaden the areas and enrich the content of cooperation,coordinate with extraterritorial forces and increase the number of stakeholders.

EU’s Role and Policy

There is now more space for collaboration between China and the EU in fighting hegemony and unilateralism and in maintaining a multilateral international order. In the EU, an unprecedented sense of crisis is leading to policy adjustments. In the same period that the EU must increase strategic independence, enhance cooperation with major powers and stabilize its international mechanism, China is actively participating in global governance construction and reform.

Strategic Impact of Brexit

Following Brexit, major changes are expected in the UK, the EU, and the relationship between the two, with far-reaching strategic effects on international politics that may develop truly unexpected aspects.Beyond the near-term challenges, the UK is likely to face new developmental opportunities in the long run. The internal power balance in the EU will undergo major changes, possibly leading to progress in diplomacy and defense but with increased internal suspicions, leading to a series of new contradictions. Regardless of its success, Brexit will long trouble the EU. A troubled UK may come to resent the EU, but it is also possible that a well-developed UK will create a development model that is different from those of the EU member states, setting an example for other members considering revaluating their relationship to the EU. The resulting instability may even change it to a free trade area. The UK is an important country, with global influence. Changes in UK-EU relations will have profound geopolitical consequences, and we can expect great changes in UK-American, European-American, UK-Russian, and European-Russian relations and larger relations between East and West. The competition and cooperation among major countries will gain complexity. Due to its close relationships with the UK and the EU, China will also be extensively and profoundly affected.