Sequence and phylogenetic analysis of hemagglutinin genes of H9N2 influenza viruses isolated from chicken in China from 2013 to 2015

H9N2 avian influenza virus（AIV） infection is a major problem in poultry industry worldwide. In this study, molecular characterizations and phylogenetic relationships of hemagglutinin（HA） gene sequences of H9N2 AIV of 5 Chinese isolates in 2014 recently available in Gen Bank, 3 widely used vaccine strains, and 52 novel isolates in China from 2013 to 2015 were analyzed. The homology analysis showed that the nucleotide sequences of HA gene of these recent Chinese H9N2 AIV isolates shared homologies from 94.1 to 99.9%. Phylogenetic analysis showed that all isolates belonged to AIV lineage h9.4.2.5. Fifty-six out of the 57 recent Chinese H9N2 AIV isolates had the motifs PSRSSR↓GLF at the cleavage sites within the HA protein, while one isolate PWH01 harbored LSRSSR↓GLF. Remarkably, all of the recent Chinese H9N2 AIV strains had the Q216 L substitution in the receptor binding site, which indicated that they had potential to infect humans. Most of recent Chinese H9N2 AIV isolates lost the potential N-linked glycosylation site at residues 200–202 compared with vaccine strains. This present study demonstrated that AIV lineage h9.4.2.5 was more predominant in China than other lineages as it harbored all the H9N2 AIV isolated between 2013 and 2015. Also we showed the importance of continuous surveillance of emerging H9N2 AIV in China and update of vaccine formulation accordingly in order to prevent and control H9N2 AIV.

Identification of highly conserved domains in hemagglutinin associated with the receptor binding specificity of influenza viruses: 2009 H1N1, avian H5N1, and swine H1N2

The hemagglutinin (HA) of influenza viruses facilitates receptor binding and membrane fusion, which is the initial step of virus infection. Human influenza viruses preferentially bind to receptors with α2-6 lin- kages to galactose (SAα2,6Gal), whereas avian influenza viruses prefer receptors with α2-3 linkages to galactose (SAα2,3Gal). The current 2009 H1N1 pandemic is caused by a novel influenza A virus that has its genetic materials from birds, humans, and pigs. Its pandemic nature is characterized clearly by its dual binding to the α2-3 as well as α2-6 receptors, because the seasonal human H1N1 virus only binds to the α2-6 receptor. In a previous study, the informational spectrum method (ISM), a bioinformatics technique, was applied to uncover one highly conserved region in the HA protein associated with receptor binding preference in each of various influenza subtypes. In the present study, we extended the previous work by discovering multiple such domains in HA of 2009 H1N1 and avian H5N1 to expand our repertoire of known key regions in HA responsible for receptor binding affinity. Three such domains in HA of 2009 H1N1 were found at residue positions 106 to 130, 150 to 174, and 191 to 221, and another three domains in HA of avian H5N1 were located at residue positions 46 to 65, 136 to 153, and 269 to 286. These identified domains could be utilized as therapeutic and diagnostic targets for the prevention and treatment of influenza infection.

The interaction between the 2009 H1N1 influenza A hemagglutinin and neuraminidase: mutations, co-mutations, and the NA stalk motifs

As the world is closely watching the current 2009 H1N1 pandemic unfold, there is a great interest and need in understanding its origin, genetic structures, virulence, and pathogenicity. The two surface proteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), of the influenza virus have been the focus of most flu research due to their crucial biological functions. In our previous study on 2009 H1N1, three aspects of NA were investigated: the mutations and co-mutations, the stalk motifs, and the phylogenetic analysis. In this study, we turned our attention to HA and the interaction between HA and NA. The 118 mutations of 2009 H1N1 HA were found and mapped to the 3D homology model of H1, and the mutations on the five epitope regions on H1 were identified. This information is essential for developing new drugs and vaccine. The distinct response patterns of HA to the changes of NA stalk motifs were discovered, illustrating the functional dependence between HA and NA. With help from our previous results, two co-mutation networks were uncovered, one in HA and one in NA, where each mutation in one network co-mutates with the mutations in the other network across the two proteins HA and NA. These two networks residing in HA and NA separately may provide a functional linkage between the mutations that can impact the drug binding sites in NA and those that can affect the host immune response or vaccine efficacy in HA. Our findings demonstrated the value of conducting timely analysis on the 2009 H1N1 virus and of the integrated approach to studying both surface proteins HA and NA together to reveal their interdependence, which could not be accomplished by studying them individually.

Highly conserved domains in hemagglutinin of influenza viruses characterizing dual receptor binding

The hemagglutinin (HA) of influenza viruses in itiates virus infection by binding receptors on host cells. Human influenza viruses preferenti ally bind to receptors with α2,6 linkages to gala ctose, avian viruses prefer receptors with α2,3 linkages to galactose, and swine viruses favor both types of receptors. The pandemic H1N1 2009 remains a global health concern in 2010. The novel 2009 H1N1 influenza virus has its ge netic components from avian, human, and sw ine viruses. Its pandemic nature is characterized clearly by its dual binding to the α2,3 as well as α2,6 receptors, because the seasonal human H1N1 virus only binds to the α2,6 receptor. In pr evious studies, the informational spectrum me thod (ISM), a bioinformatics method, was appli ed to uncover highly conserved regions in the HA protein associated with the primary receptor binding preference in various subtypes. In the present study, we extended the previous work by discovering multiple domains in HA associa ted with the secondary receptor binding prefer ence in various subtypes, thus characterizing the distinct dual binding nature of these viruses. The domains discovered in the HA proteins were mapped to the 3D homology model of HA, which could be utilized as therapeutic and diag nostic targets for the prevention and treatment of influenza infection.

Glycosylation of the hemagglutinin protein of H9N2 subtype avian influenza virus influences its replication and virulence in mice

N-Linked glycosylation of hemagglutinin(HA) has been demonstrated to regulate the virulence and receptor-binding specificity of avian influenza virus(AIV).In this study,we characterized the variation trend of naturally isolated H9 N2 viruses for the potential N-linked glycosylation sites in HA proteins,and explored any important role of some glycosylation sites.HA genes of 19 H9 N2 subtype AIV strains since 2001 were sequenced and analyzed for the potential glycosylation sites.The results showed that the viruses varied by losing one potential glycosylation site at residues 200 to 202,and having an additional one at residues 295 to 297 over the past few years.Further molecular and single mutation analysis revealed that the N200 Q mutation lost an N-linked glycosylation at positions 200 to 202 of the HA protein and affected the human-derived receptor affinity.We further found that this N-linked glycosylation increased viral productivity in the lung of the infected mice.These findings provide a novel insight on understanding the determinants of host adaption and virulence of H9 N2 viruses in mammals.

Possible Impact of Global Warming on the Evolution of Hemagglutinins from Influenza A Viruses

Objective To determine if global warming has an impact on the evolution of hemagglutinins from influenza A viruses, because both global warming and influenza pandemics/epidemics threaten the world. Methods 4 706 hemagglutinins from influenza A viruses sampled from 1956 to 2009 were converted to a time‐series to show their evolutionary process and compared with the global, northern hemisphere and southern hemisphere temperatures, to determine if their trends run in similar or opposite directions. Point‐to‐point comparisons between temperature and quantified hemagglutinins were performed for all species and for the major prevailing species. Results The comparisons show that the trends for both hemagglutinin evolution and temperature change run in a similar direction. Conclusion Global warming has a consistent and progressive impact on the hemagglutinin evolution of influenza A viruses.

Construction and Virulence of Filamentous Hemagglutinin Protein B1 Mutant of Pasteurella multocida in Chickens

Pasteurella multocida, a Gram-negative nonmotile coccobacillus, is the causative agent of fowl cholera, bovine hemorrhagic septicemia, enzoonotic pneumonia and swine atropic rhinitis. Two filamentous hemagglutinin genes, fhaB1 and JhaB2, are the potential virulence factors. In this study, an inactivationfhaB1 mutant ofP. multocida in avian strain C48-102 was constructed by a kanamycin-resistance cassette. The virulence of thefhaB1 mutant and the wild type strain was assessed in chickens by intranasal and intramuscular challenge. The inactivation offhaB1 resulted in a high degree of attenuation when the chickens were challenged intranasally and a lesser degree when challenged intramuscularly. ThefhaB1 mutant and the wild type strain were investigated their sensitivity to the antibody-dependent classical complement-mediated killing pathway in 90% convalescent chicken serum. ThefhaB1 mutant was serum sensitive as the viability has reduced between untreated serum and heat inactivated chicken serum （P〈0.007）. These results confirmed that FhaB1 played the critical roles in the bacterial pathogenesis and further studies were needed to investigate the mechanism which caused reduced virulence of the fhaB1 mutant.

The Protection Efficacity of DNA Vaccine Encoding Hemagglutinin of H5 Subtype Avian Influenza Virus

The DNA vaccine pCIHA5 encoding hemagglutinin can protect SPF chicken against lethal H5N1 avian influenza virus challenge. The more characters about its protection efficacity were studied. The protective rates in 10, 40, 70, 100 and 150 μg groups immunized with pCIHA5 were 12.5 (1/8), 58.3 (7/12), 72.7 (8/11), 50.0 (6/12) and 66.7% (8/12), respectively. The protective rates in 5, 20, 35 and 50 μg groups were 145.5 (5/11), 58.3 (7/12), 58.3 (7/12) and 91.7% (11/12), respectively. The 70, 100 and 5 μg groups have virus shedding of 1/8, 2/6 and 1/5. Though the inactived oil-emulsion vaccine has high HI antibody titers and 100% protective rate, the AGP antibody could be detected after vaccination. Results show that the pCIHA5 is fit to boost by intramuscular injection. This would be useful to the study on gene engineering vaccine of avian influenza virus.

Prediction of mutation position, mutated amino acid and timing in hemagglutinins from North America H1 influenza A virus

This study was trying to predict the mutations in H1 hemagglutinins of influenza A virus from North America including the predictions of mu-tation position, the predictions of would-be-mutated amino acids and the predictions of time of occurrence of mutations. The results paved a possible way for accurate, precise and reliable prediction of mutation in proteins from influenza A virus.

Activity of T Cells Stimulated by Hemagglutinin-neuraminidase of Newcastle Disease Virus in vivo

To investigate the stimulated activity of T cells and the anti-tumor properties of hemagglutinin-neuraminidase（HN） of Newcastle disease virus（NDV） strain Changchun（NDVcc）, the expression of HN gene in hepatoma cells（human HepG-2 and mouse H22 cells） infected with the recombinant adenovirus（Ad-HN） was identified by Western blot analysis and flow cytometry. Sialidase activity of NDVcc HN expressed by Ad-HN was assayed by the periodate-resorcinol method. The in vivo anti-tumor effects of NDVcc HN were evaluated in the H22 solid tumor model. Regional lymph nodes of the mouse model treated with Ad-HN were removed to harvest T lymphocytes and evaluating the specific cytotoxicity of cytotoxic T lymphocyte（CTL） and natural killer（NK） cells by an L-lactate dehydrogenase（LDH） assay, in the mean time, the secretion of cytokines was analyzed by enzyme linked immunosorbent assays（ELISA）. The results show that NDVcc HN was effectively expressed by Ad-HN in HepG-2 and H22 cells. The sialidase activity assay showed that Ad-HN significantly reduced sialic acid level of the hepatoma cells compared with the cells infected the empty adenovirus vector（Ad-mock）. When treated with Ad-HN, the growth of subcutaneous H22 primary tumors in C57BL/6 mice was suppressed, and the mean mice survival increased. In addition, the treatment of Ad-HN elicited strong NK and CTL responses, and high levels of Th1 cytokines, such as IL-2 and IFN-γ. In conclusion, NDVcc HN effectively elicits T cell-mediate anti-tumor cytotoxicity via sialidase activity and may be a novel strategy for cancer immunotherapy.

Pathogenicity and amino acid sequences of hemagglutinin cleavage site and neuraminidase stalk of differently passaged H9N2-avian influenza virus in broilers

Low pathogenic Avian Influenza (AI) virus has the ability to evolve to high pathogenic viruses resulting in significant economic losses in the poultry sector. This study aims at assessing the impact of H9N2 viral passaging in broilers and its relatedness to pathogenicity and amino acid (a.a) sequences of the hemagglutinin (HA) cleavage site and neuraminidase (NA) stalk. The original H9N2 AI virus (P0) was used to challenge ten-21 days old broilers. Individual recovery of H9N2 virus from homogenates of trachea, lungs and airsacs was attempted in 9 days old chicken embryos, as a conclusion of the first passage (P1). Tracheal isolates of H9N2 were passaged for a second (P2) and a third (P3) time in broilers, followed by a similar embryonic recovery procedure. The a.a. sequence of a part of HA1 cleavage site and Neuraminidase stalk were compared among the differently passaged viruses;an assessement of the relatedness of the determined a.a. sequences to the pathogenicity in broilers, based on frequency of mortality, morbidity signs, gross and microscopic lesions at 3 days post challenge with the P1, P2, and P3-H9N2, is concluded. An increase in certain morbidity signs and specific lesions was observed in P2- and P3-H9N2 challenged broilers compared to birds challenged with P1-H9N2. A conserved R-S-S-R amino acid sequence at the HA1 cleavage site was observed in the differently passaged H9N2, associated with a variability in the NA stalk-a.a sequences. The passaging of the low pathogenic H9N2 virus in broilers leads to a trend of increase in pathogenicity, manifested in higher frequency of morbidity signs, and of specific gross and microscopic lesions of the examined organs. This passaging was associated with a conserved a.a. sequence of the hemaglutinin cleavage site and a variability in the sequence of the neuraminidase stalk. A detailed study of the potential of the detected variability in the neuraminidase stalk of H9N2 in induction of a higher pathogenicity in broilers will be the subject of future investigations.

Enhanced Protective Efficacy of H5 Subtype Influenza Vaccine with Modification of the Multibasic Cleavage Site of Hemagglutinin in Retroviral Pseudotypes

Traditionally, the multibasic cleavage site （MBCS） of surface protein H5-hemagglutinin （HA） is converted to a monobasic one so as to weaken the virulence of recombinant H5N1 influenza viruses and to produce inactivated and live attenuated vaccines. Whether such modification benefits new candidate vaccines has not been adequately investigated. We previously used retroviral vectors to generate wtH5N1 pseudotypes containing the wild-type HA （wtH5） from A/swine/Anhui/ca/2004 （H5N1） virus. Here, we generated mtH5N1 pseudotypes, which contained a mutant-type HA （mtH5） with a modified monobasic cleavage site. Groups of mice were subcutaneously injected with the two types of influenza pseudotypes. Compared to the group immunized with wtH5N1 pseudotypes, the inoculation of mtH5N1 pseudotypes induced significantly higher levels of HA specific IgG and IFN-y in immunized mice, and enhanced protection against the challenge of mouse-adapted avian influenza virus A/Chicken/Henardl2/2004 （H5N1）. This study suggests modification of the H5-hemagglutinin MBCS in retroviral pseudotypes enhances protection efficacy in mice and this information may be helpful for development of vaccines from mammalian cells to fight against H5N 1 influenza viruses.

Preparation of Monoclonal Antibodies against Hemagglutinin of Avian Influenza Virus H9 Subtype by Plasmid Immunization

Avian influenza has caused enormous economic losses to poultry industry. To develop kits for rapid diagnosis of avian influenza virus （AIV） H9 subtype, 8-week-old Balb/c mice were administered with pcDNA3.1 （ ＋ ） carrying hemagglutinin （HA） gene of AIV H9 subtype. After cell fusion, one positive hybridoma cell strain was screened out by hemagglutination inhibition assay （ HI ）, and another positive hybddoma call strain was screened out by ELISA. After subcloning 3 times, the two cell strains could still secret antibodies against the HA of AIV H9 subtype. The mono- clonal antibodies did not react with Newcastle disease virus, AIV H5 subtype and duck adenovirus A. Their subtypes were IgG2b with kappa light chain. These two hybridoma cell strains may play an important role in rapid diagnosis and early-warning surveillance of AIV H9 subtype.

Measles Virus(Nepal Strain)Hemagglutinin Gene: Cloning,Complete Nucleotide Sequence Analysis and Expression in COS Cells

Hemagglutinin gene of Measles virus(Nepal strain) was amplified by RT PCR technique, cloned and sequenced by the dideoxy mediated chain termination method. The comparison to the standard strain(Edmonston strain) showed many important mutations. The homology of these two strains was 98.17%. Then H gene was cloned into expression vector pCD SRα296 and introduced into COS 7 cells by electroporation method. The expression and function of cloned H gene was checked by hemadsorption assays.

Prediction of Mutations in H7 Hemagglutinins from Influenza A Virus

Influenza A viruses have led several pandemics and epidemics in human history. H7 subtype influenza mainly infects avian but also humans occasionally. Since the outbreak of H7N9 subtype influenza occurred in China in 2013, this virus is still circulating in domestic poultry and leading several waves of influenza. To prevent influenza, vaccination is an important strategy. However, influenza virus evolves constantly, but unpredictably. If we would have a one-to-one cause-mutation relationship, the mutation prediction would be possible. However, many external causes, which led to the mutations in the past, might not leave any trace due to the change in environments, whereas the current virus might not be subject to the historically external causes because of evolution. Furthermore, the protein should have the internal causes, which might be quite unclear and difficult to quantify, to engineer mutations. Indeed, various forces twist proteins into 3-demensional structures, whereas any perturbation could lead to a mutation. Of various internal causes for mutation, randomness in protein primary structure should play an important role in mutation. Over years, we have developed three methods to quantify the randomness within a protein primary structure;thus we build a relationship between cause, which is randomness in primary structure, and mutations, which are occurrence and non-occurrence of mutation. In this way, the cause-mutation relationship becomes the problem of classification, which can be solved using logistic regression and neural network. In this study, we apply this model to predict 1) the mutation positions in H7 hemagglutinins from influenza A virus and 2) the would-be-mutated amino-acids at predicted positions with the amino-acid mutating probability. The results show suitability and predictability in such modelling, and pave the way for further development.

Prediction of a neutralizing epitope of a H5N1 virus hemagglutinin complexed with an antibody variable fragment using molecular dynamics simulation

In this present study, we predicted the neutralizing epitope of a modeled H5N1 hemagglutinin 1046T when interacted with a modeled monoclonal antibody variable fragment 8H5Fv using molecular dynamics simulation. Following the production run of the molecular dynamics simulation, we observed the average change of solvent accessible surface of the antigen alongside the formation of hydrogen bonds between the two structures during the simulation. Based on the acquired data, we predicted the neutralizing epitope of the 1046T antigen to be consisted of residues Asp 84, Glu85, Phe86, Ile87, Asn88, Val89, Pro90, Ile132, Ser136, Val147, Pro152, Tyr153, Leu154, Arg161, and Tyr268. By calculating the RMSD of the Cα backbone chain of the complex during the simulation we found the structure to be generally stable suggesting a well maintained steric hindrance, while RMSD calculation of the predicted neutralizing epitope backbone suggests the stability of the neutralizing epitope itself.

Enhanced pathogenicity and transmissibility of H9N2 avian influenza virus in mammals by hemagglutinin mutations combined with PB2-627K

H9N2 avian influenza viruses(AIVs)circulate globally in poultry and have become the dominant AIV subtype in China in recent years.Previously,we demonstrated that the H9N2 virus(A/chicken/Eastern China/SDKD1/2015)naturally harbors a mammalian-adaptive molecular factor(627K)in the PB2 protein and is weakly pathogenic in mice.Here,we focused on new markers for virulence in mammals.A mouse-adapted H9N2 virus was serially passaged in mice by infecting their lungs.As expected,infected mice showed clinical symptoms and died at passage six.A comparison between the wild-type and mouse-adapted virus sequences identified amino acid substitutions in the hemagglutinin(HA)protein.H9N2 viruses with the T187P t M227L double mutation exhibited an increased affinity to human-type(SAα2,6Gal)receptors and significantly enhanced viral attachment to mouse lung tissues,which contributed to enhancing viral replication and virulence in mice.Additionally,HA with the T187P t M227L mutation enabled H9N2 viral transmission in guinea pigs via direct contact.AIV pathogenicity in mice is a polygenic trait.Our results demonstrated that these HA mutations might be combined with PB2-627K to significantly increase H9N2 virulence in mice,and this enhanced virulence was achieved in other H9N2 AIVs by generating the same combination of mutations.In summary,our study identified novel key elements in the HA protein that are required for H9N2 pathogenicity in mice and provided valuable insights into pandemic preparedness against emerging H_(9)N_(2)strains.

铜绿假单胞菌-甘露糖敏感血细胞凝集素抗肿瘤的作用机制及临床应用

铜绿假单胞菌-甘露糖敏感血细胞凝集素(PA-MSHA)在抗肿瘤领域的应用不断增加。PA-MSHA可以通过抑制表皮生长因子受体(EGFR)通路促进肿瘤细胞凋亡、抑制肿瘤细胞侵袭和迁移、分化以及改变耐药和细胞上皮-间充质转化(EMT)状态,同时PA-MSHA也通过Toll样受体(TLR)增强巨噬细胞和T细胞对肿瘤细胞的免疫杀伤和抑制。该文梳理并综述关于PA-MSHA抗肿瘤的机制及临床应用,认为PA-MSHA通过作用于细胞甘露糖基的调节过程改变了EGFR和TLR蛋白的糖基化。PA-MSHA可能作用的细胞膜蛋白包括更多的高甘露糖基信号通路受体,阐明PA-MSHA和甘露糖基之间的深层次关系对PA-MSHA的机制研究及临床应用意义重大。

明胶海绵-血凝酶封堵剂在肺穿刺出血患者中的应用

目的 探讨明胶海绵-血凝酶封堵剂在肺穿刺出血患者中的应用。方法 收集2021年9月至2023年5月在济宁市第一人民医院接受明胶海绵-血凝酶封堵剂治疗的43例DSA导引肺穿刺活检并发出血患者临床资料,分析封堵止血治疗效果。结果 43例患者肺穿刺活检均成功取得,针道均由明胶海绵-血凝酶封堵剂成功封堵。封堵治疗后5 min,43例中仅1例术前表现为中量咯血伴中度出血影患者转为痰中带血,肺内出血影较5 min前稍扩大,其余患者均止血成功,咯血症状消失,肺内出血影与5 min前相仿。所有患者均未出现封堵治疗相关并发症。结论 明胶海绵-血凝酶封堵剂可用于治疗肺穿刺活检出血,疗效显著且安全。

In silico characterization of the functional and structural modules of the hemagglutinin protein from the swine-origin influenza virus A (H1N1)-2009

The 2009 swine-origin influenza virus (S-OIV,H1N1 subtype) has developed into a new pandemic influenza as announced by the World Health Organization.In order to uncover clues about the determinants for virulence and pathogenicity of the virus,we characterized the functional modules of the surface glycoprotein hemagglutinin (HA),the most important protein in molecular epidemiology and pathogenesis of influenza viruses.We analyzed receptor binding sites,basic patch,neutralization antibody epitopes and T cell epitopes in the HA protein of the current S-OIV according to the corresponding functional and structural modules previously characterized in other H1 HA molecules or HA molecules of other subtypes.We compared their differences and similarities systematically.Based on the amino acids defined as the functional and structural modules,the HA protein of 2009 S-OIV should specifically bind to the human 2,6-receptor.The D225G/E mutation in HA,which is found in some isolates,may confer dual binding specificity to the 2,3and 2,6-receptor based on previously reported work.This HA variant contains two basic patches,one of which results in increased basicity,suggesting enhanced membrane fusion function.The 2009 S-OIV HA also has an extra glycosylation site at position 276.Four of the five antibody neutralization epitopes identified in A/RP/8/34(H1N1) were exposed,but the other was hidden by a glycosylation site.The previously identified cytotoxic T cell epitopes in various HA molecules were summarized and their corresponding sequences in 2009 S-OIV HA were defined.These results are critical for understanding the pathogenicity of the virus and host immune response against the virus.