Mirror Neurons Underpinnings of Communication Aspects： Inter-subjectivity and Socio-cultural Dimensions

The central aim of this article is to account for communication’s diverse behavioral aspects： actional, motional, audio-visual, emotional, and intentional and their neural underpinnings. Based on neural substrates, the aforementioned aspects will be illuminated in terms of their interpersonal and socio-cultural dimensions active in human interaction. Culture in this context is to be approached, on the one hand, as a guideline identifying a given group or society in a given neuro-social space and taken, on the other hand, as a universal catalogue of synchronized human behavior. The framework we draw on our lines of reasoning incorporates Mirror Neurons theory and Neural Networks conception, equally referring to an interdisciplinary-grounded perspective.

Mirror neuron system as the joint from action to language

Mirror neuron system （MNS） represents one past decade, and it has been found to involve in multiple of the most important discoveries of cognitive neuroscience in the aspects of brain functions including action understanding, imitation, language understanding, empathy, action prediction and speech evolution. This manuscript reviewed the function of MNS in action understanding as well as language evolution, and specifically assessed its roles as the bridge from body language to fluent speeches. Then we discussed the speech defects of autism patients due to the disruption of MNS. Finally, given that MNS is plastic in adult brain, we proposed MNS targeted therapy provides an efficient rehabilitation approach for brain damages conditions as well as autism patients.

Electroencephalogram evidence for the activation of human mirror neuron system during the observation of intransitive shadow and line drawing actions

Previous studies have demonstrated that hand shadows may activate the motor cortex associated with the mirror neuron system in human brain. However, there is no evidence of activity of the human mirror neuron system during the observation of intransitive movements by shadows and line drawings of hands. This study examined the suppression of electroencephalography mu waves （8-13 Hz） induced by observation of stimuli in 18 healthy students. Three stimuli were used： real hand actions, hand shadow actions and actions made by line drawings of hands. The results showed significant desynchronization of the mu rhythm （＂mu suppression＂） across the sensodmotor cortex （recorded at C3, Cz and C4）, the frontal cortex （recorded at F3, Fz and F4） and the central and right posterior parietal cortex （recorded at Pz and P4） under all three conditions. Our experimental findings suggest that the observation of ＂impoverished hand actions＂, such as intransitive movements of shadows and line drawings of hands, is able to activate widespread cortical areas related to the putative human mirror neuron system.

Human mirror neuron system and its plasticity

The mirror neuron system （MNS） was first discovered in non-human primates; these neurons fire when a monkey performs an action or observes another monkey （or even some people） performing that same action. Recent findings have suggested that neural rehabilitation might be achieved through the activation of the MNS in patients after stroke. We propose two major mechanisms （one involving adult neurogenesis and another involving brain-derived neurotrophic factor） that may underlie the activation, modulation and experience-dependent plasticity in the MNS, for further study on promoting central nerve functional reconstruction and rehabilitation of patients with central nervous system injury.

Electroencephalogram evidence for mirror neuron activity during the observation of drawn hand motion

The present study used electroencephalography to examine mu rhythm suppression （a putative index of human mirror neuron system activation） at frontal sites （F3, Fz and F4）, central sites （C3, Cz and C4）, parietal sites （P3, Pz and P4） and occipital sites （O1 and O2）, while subjects observed real hand motion （real hand motion condition） and illustrative depictions of hand motion （drawn hand motion condition）. Experimental data revealed that mu rhythm suppression was exhibited in the mirror neuron system when subjects observed both real and drawn hand motion. Moreover, the mu rhythm recorded at the F3, Fz, F4, and Pz poles was significantly suppressed while observing both stimulus types, but no obvious mu suppression occurred at the O1, 02 and 03 poles. These results suggest that the observation of drawings of human hand actions can activate the human mirror neuron system. This evidence supports the hypothesis that the mirror neuron system may be involved in intransitively abstract action understanding.

The use of mirror mechanism for activity-dependent neurorehabilitation

The present study observed the effects of the non-invasive, mirror neuron system application on neurorehabilitation. In primate studies, mirror neurons have been shown to fire when the subject observes or performs a specific action, thereby allowing for observation of motor cortex activation. This activation of the mirror neuron system could serve as a treatment for stroke patients. In the present study, the combination of a mirror neuron system-based therapy was introduced for the treatment of patients with motor-deficits, who could not perform rehabilitation exercises. The results also indicate that this therapeutic method plays a positive role in emotional regulation in the same patients.

Visual feedback therapy for restoration of upper limb function of stroke patients

Objective:To investigate the effects of mirror neuron theory-based visual feedback therapy(VFT)on restoration of upper limb function of stroke patients and motor-related cortical function using functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI).Methods:Hemiplegic stroke patients were randomly divided into two groups:a VFT group and a control(CTL)group.Sixteen patients in the VFT group received conventional rehabilitation(CR)and VFT for 8 weeks,while 15 patients in the CTL group received only CR.The Barthel Index(BI)was used to assess the activities of daily living at baseline and the 8th week of the recovery training period.The Fugl-Meyer assessment(FMA)scale,somatosensory evoked potential(SEP),and fMRI were used to evaluate the recovery effect of the training therapies.The latencies and amplitudes of N9 and N20 were measured.Before recovery training,fMRI was performed for all patients in the VFT and CTL groups.In addition,17 patients(9 in the VFT group and 8 in the CTL group)underwent fMRI for follow-up 2 months after treatment.Qualitative data were analyzed using the x2 test.The independent sample t-test was used to compare normally distributed data among different groups,the paired sample t-test was used to compare data between groups,and the non-parametric test was used to comparing data without normal distribution among groups.Results:There were no significant differences between the VFT and CTL group in all indexes.However,after 8 weeks of recovery training,these indexes were all significantly improved(P<0.05).As compared with the CTL group,the FMA scores,BI,and N9/N20 latencies and amplitudes of SEP in the VFT group were significantly improved(P<0.05).Two months after recovery training,fMRI showed that the degree of activation of the bilateral central anterior gyrus.parietal lobe,and auxiliary motor areas was significantly higher in the VFT group than the CTL group(P<0.05).Conclusions:VFT based on mirror neuron theory is an effective approach to improve upper extremity motor function and daily activity performance of stroke patients.The therapeutic mechanism promotes motor relearning by activating the mirror neuron system and motor cortex.SEP amplitudes increased only for patients who participated in visual feedback.VFT promotes sensory-motor plasticity and behavioral changes in both the motor and sensory domains.

Embodied Simulation and a Few Remarks on the Philosophy of Language in Italy

The debate on the state of the art of philosophy in Italy shows many differences from the three main currents of contemporary philosophy, namely deconstructionism, critical theory, and analytic philosophy. On one hand, the philosophical stance towards language, and on the other hand, the strong separation between science and philosophy are the distinctive features of the Italian thought. In particular, philosophy of language shows a fragmented framework in which current researches are an example for future studies on language and human nature. The basic idea behind the Philosophy of Language in Italy is that language has a biological and social nature. The aim of this paper is to give an account of the range of ＂bio＂ through a dialogue between philosophy and neuroscience. I will review the Italian research on mirror neurons with particular attention to the developments in embodied simulation proposed by Vittorio Gallese. I will underline the philosophical aspects of this neuroscientific theory, providing some remarks on intersubjectivity, intentions, and language. Finally, I will suggest future joint studies in neuroscience and the philosophy of language.

Uta Frith’s thoughts on the Theory of Mind and Autistic Deficit: Dialogue between Art and Neuroscience

The contemporary scientist and German developmental psychologist at the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience of University College London, Uta Frith has mainly focused her research on autism spectrum disorder and the related theory-of-mind deficit. To explain the autistic mentalistic deficit, the psychologist has used a specific tool: art, her initial pursuit cultivated at the Universität des Saarlandes, in Germany. Thus, this work seeks to reconstruct the artistic influences on Uta Frith’s scientific efforts, highlighting how the dialogical intersection of two seemingly distant disciplines, like art and neuroscience, can generate surprising new networks of signification and an understanding of the intrapsychic and interpsychic worlds. Art challenges us to develop moments of neuroscientific knowledge. On the other. In contrast, neuroscience offers the opportunity to develop further insights into the role of visual perception in contemplating works of art.

Action observation as a tool for neurorehabilitation to moderate motor deficits and aphasia following stroke

The mirror neuron system consists of a set of brain areas capable of matching action observation with action execution. One core feature of the mirror neuron system is the activation of motor areas by action observation alone. This unique capacity of the mirror neuron system to match action perception and action execution stimulated the idea that mirror neuron system plays a crucial role in the understanding of the content of observed actions and may participate in procedural learning. These features bear a high potential for neurorehabilitation of motor deficits and of aphasia following stroke. Since the first articles exploring this principle were published, a growing number of follow-up studies have been conducted in the last decade. Though, the combination of action observation with practice of the observed actions seems to constitute the most powerful approach. In the present review, we present the existing studies analyzing the effects of this neurorehabJlitative approach in clinical settings especially in the rehabilitation of stroke associated motor deficits and give a perspective on the ongoing trials by our research group. The data obtained up to date showed significant positive effect of action observation on recovery of motor functions of the upper limbs even in the chronic state after stroke, indicating that our approach might become a new standardized add-on feature of modern neurorehabilitative treatment schemes.

Effect of action observation therapy on daily activities and motor recovery in stroke patients

Objective:To evaluate the effects of action observation therapy,which is based on mirror neuron theory,on upper limb function and activities of daily living in patients with stroke.Methods:Sixty-one patients with stroke were randomly divided into two groups;those in the control group received routine rehabilitation treatment and nursing,whereas those in the experimental group additionally received eight weeks of action observation therapy for 30 min,six times per week.Patients receiving action observation therapy watched videos depicting a model performing specific motor actions typically performed in daily life before enacting the same actions themselves.All patients were assessed using the FugleMeyer assessment,Barthel index and the modified Ashworth scale at baseline and at eight weeks,after treatment.Results:After the eight weeks of treatment,both groups of patients exhibited significant improvement in all the measurements(all p<0.05).Furthermore,the FugleMeyer assessment,Barthel index and modified Ashworth scale scores were significantly higher in the experimental group compared to the control group(all p<0.05).Conclusion:Action observation therapy significantly improves upper extremity motor function and performance of activities of daily living,and alleviates upper limb spasticity in patients with stroke.

Embodied Emotion:A New Direction for Embodied Cognition

With the development of embodied cognitive science,the embodiment of human high-level psychological processes such as language and emotions has been paid more and more attention.The importance of body and situation in the understanding of emotional experience is the core content of the embodied emotion.This article aims to review the current hypotheses and empirical evidence of embodied emotions,explains the significance and value of embodied emotion research,and thinks about the research prospects and research ideas of embodied emotion.At the same time,as a new theoretical point of view,emotional embodied view provides a new perspective for emotional research.

Mirror system based therapy for autism spectrum disorders

This paper reviews the present theories and empirical research of autisms’cognitive research and mir-ror systems and introduces a new hypothesis about the causes of autism spectrum disorders(ASD):autistic mir-ror neuron dysfunction hypothesis.ASD subjects show obvious lack of the activation of the mirror system during the task of observation or emotional cognition.It is sig-nificant to investigate the mirror system for revealing the causes of autism and it is also helpful for developing new ways to diagnose or treat this disorder.

Comparative Perspectives on Solutions for the Problem of Other Minds

This paper aims to establish a dialogue between contemporary research on the problem of other minds and classical Chinese philosophical theories.It first explores the idea,inspired by the recent discovery of the mirror neuron mechanism,that a direct exchange of experience may occur between the observer and the observed.Next,it analyzes the ways in which the ancient Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi and Confucian thinkers reflected on the problem of other minds,which are quite similar to the idea inspired by the latest research on mirror neurons.In these thinkers’views,knowledge of other minds is the result of mental activity and what it provides is,to a large extent,something related not to epistemology but rather to a situational understanding of other minds from the perspective of value theory.The author points out that this solution takes two aspects,humans9 innate nature and human experience,into consideration simultaneously.In terms of humans,innate nature,the body of a human being is a body that represents the unity of man and nature,and it has something in common with the natural world,which lays a foundation for the perception of other minds.In terms of human experience,human beings have such actual needs as emotions,pursuits,and desires,and their behaviors need to conform to certain norms.It is in a body of this kind that the mind of human beings can be formed and enjoy the potential to develop.Effective interpersonal communication can thus be achieved.