Technical efficiency of cocoa farms at varying elevation levels in Davao City, Philippines: implications to sustainable upland farming systems

Elevation is one of many components that influence agriculture, and this in turn affects the level of both inputs and outputs of farmers. This article focuses on the productivity and technical efficiency of 100 cocoa farms using cross-sectional data from areas ranging from 190 to 1021 m above sea level which were classified as low, medium, and high elevation in Davao City, considered as the chocolate capital of the Philippines. Using stochastic frontier analysis, the results showed that the cost of inputs per ha and the number of cocoa trees per ha significantly increase yield. Farms at high elevations were less technically efficient, as this entails lower temperatures and increased rainfall, and cocoa farming in those areas and conditions can be more challenging, especially with changes in farming practices, terrain, and distance to markets. Other significant variables were age of cocoa farms, married farmers, and age of the farmers. Older farms may be more developed, farmers who are married benefit from their spouses being able to readily contribute as farm labor, and lastly, older farmers' inefficiency may likely stem from nonadaptation of newer farming practices. With an average technical efficiency of 0.61, 0.63, and 0.26 in low, medium, and high elevation areas, respectively, farmers therefore have an incentive to improve farm practices and consider topographical variations found in high elevation areas. Recommendations for the improvement of technical efficiency of cocoa farms are better connectivity to markets, enhancing farm practices, and continuation and improvement of government programs on cocoa with an added emphasis on research. For farmers in high elevation areas, mitigating solutions such as sustainable agriculture practices and ecolabelling are key to improving efficiency and minimizing the potential negative impact on upland farming systems. Moreover, such adaptation measures may also contribute to sustainability of cocoa farming in high elevation areas.

A review of ethnobotanical studies reveals over 500 medicinal plants in Mindanao,Philippines

Medicinal plants have long been used to treat various diseases in both indigenous and non-indigenous populations of Mindanao,Philippines.Here,we extracted data from ethnobotanical studies to compile a comprehensive list of these medicinal plants and identify how and for what purpose they are most commonly used.We identified 530 verified medicinal plant species across 372 genera in 118 families.The two most frequently cited species were Euphorbia hirta and Psidium guajava.The most represented family was Fabaceae and the most represented genus was Ficus.A total of 28 medicinal plant species are designated as threatened at the national or global level;of these,11 are endemic to the Philippines.Medicinal plant preparations most commonly use leaves for oral administration to treat various diseases such as digestive issues,including diarrhea.This study underscores the need for further ethnobotanical investigations,particularly in areas lacking records.It also emphasizes the need for conservation of threatened and endemic medicinal plants to ensure sustainable utilization of this valuable resource.

Resurgence of dengue in the Philippines

The coronavirus disease 2019(COVID-19)pandemic has significantly influenced the epidemiological landscape of various infectious diseases such as dengue.Dengue is an endemic disease in the Philippines,which showed a significant de-cline in the number of cases beginning in March 2020 due to the stringent public health measures implemented to curb COVID-19 cases.However,the easing of these restrictions subsequently led to a resurgence in dengue cases,as reported by the World Health Organization,with a notable increase compared to previous years.As the country navigates towards a post-pandemic phase,addressing the resurgence of dengue requires sustained efforts in vector control,surveillance,and healthcare preparedness.This article underscores the critical need for collab-orative efforts among stakeholders to mitigate the resurgence of dengue while managing the ongoing recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic.

Caulerpa J. V. Lamouroux (1809) (Chlorophyta: Bryopsidales) Species and Sites in Eastern Samar, Central Philippines

A descriptive survey was conducted in Eastern Samar to identify the Caulerpa species, sites where these species exhibit massive populations, and the most preferred edible species. Results revealed that only four of the eleven species, C. racemosa, C. lentillifera, C. chemnitzia var. peltata, and C. cylindracea, have massive populations;The four Caulerpa sites are the municipalities of Arteche, Guiuan, Salcedo (Matarinao Bay) and Quinapondan, and species C. racemosa, C. lentillifera, and C. chemnitzia var. peltata are most preferred edible species which are considered in the local diet. The study concludes that the distribution of Caulerpa in Eastern Samar is area-specific and should therefore be considered in resource planning and management, particularly in relation to aquaculture.

Amphibians and Reptiles of Luzon Island,V:The Herpetofauna of Angat Dam Watershed,Bulacan Province,Luzon Island,Philippines

We report amphibian and reptile distribution records based on recent biodiversity surveys conducted at the Angat Watershed Reservation, Bulacan Province, Luzon Island, Philippines. This watershed constitutes the principal water source for Manila, the Philippines＇ largest metropolitan area. As virtually nothing is known of the herpetological diversity of the immediate area and the surrounding Bulacan Province, all species recorded as part of our surveys constitute major geographical records and/or significant range extensions. Our data result in a total of 63 new records of amphibian （19 frogs） and reptile （22 lizards, 2 turtles, and 20 snakes） species for this protected area （and immediate vicinity） that serves as a watershed for the major metropolitan area of Manila and surrounding cities. Together with the few previous literature records, our new records bring the total number of amphibian and reptile species for Bulacan Province to 68. We discuss several strategies for future survey work （focusing on habitat type, seasonal variation, and elevational variability） that we anticipate will result in increased knowledge of diversity within the Angat Watershed Reserve. The impressive level of herpetological diversity within such a small area, so close to Metro Manila, emphasizes that the diversity and distribution patterns of amphibians and reptiles from Luzon are still poorly known and in need of further study.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in the Philippines:Comparable with other nations?

AIM: To evaluate the prevalence and determined the common characteristics of patients diagnosed with non- alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) at the Philippine General Hospital, Manila, from January 1999 to December 2004. METHODS: NAFLD was diagnosed in 134 from a total of 1102 patients, based on clinical, ultrasonographic and/or histopathological findings. Patients with conditions associated with secondary NAFLD were excluded. Chart review was done to note demographics, co- morbid illnesses, physical characteristics, hepatomegaly, aspartate/alanine aminotransferase (AST/ALT) levels, albumin, lipid levels, alkaline phosphatase, prothrombin time, and partial thromboplastin time. Data obtained were analyzed using the statistical program SPSS version 10. RESULTS: Of the 134 patients included, 71% were female and 29% male. Mean patient age was 42.2 years. Sixty percent of patients were obese, 56% had hepatomegaly, and 69% had diabetes. AST levels were elevated in 45% of subjects and ALT levels in 64%. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of NAFLD at our institution was 12.2%. Patients diagnosed appear to be younger in age in contrast to previous studies. Female sex, obesity, elevated liver enzymes, and diabetes were characteristic features of our NAFLD patients, which is comparable to previous studies from other countries.

Preliminary assessment of nasopharyngeal carcinoma incidence in the Philippines: a second look at published data from four centers

In endemic regions such as southern China and Southeast Asia, the annual incidence of nasopharyngeal carcinoma(NPC) ranges from 3 to 30 per 100,000. In the Philippines, the estimated incidence in 2010 was 1.2 per 100,000. However, this rate is based on data collected from registries covering only two regions in the country. Here, we report the findings from our study to better approximate the incidence of NPC in the Philippines. Between September 1, 2011 and August 31, 2012, data were collected from 49 patients from 4 different institutions—University of Santo Tomas, Makati Medical Center, Philippine Oncology Center Corporation, and Cardinal Santos Memorial Medical Center—using a NPC screening questionnaire. Crude incidence was 0.09 per 100,000. Age-standardized incidences using Segi and WHO standards were 2.08 and 1.79 per 100,000, respectively. Of the 49 patients, 31 were males and 18 were females, and 71% of patients were between 30 and 59 years old. WHO types II and III represented 22% and 78% of the subjects, respectively, and 75.5% of cases were locally advanced(stages III–IVB). Although the age-standardized incidence from the 4 institutions was numerically higher than the published age-standardized incidence(2.07 per 100,000 vs. 1.2 per 100,000), two-proportion z-test showed no significant difference between them(P = 0.68). A more concerted effort is needed for a better approximation of the country's NPC disease burden.

Hepatitis B infection among adults in the philippines:A national seroprevalence study

AIM:To determine the prevalence of hepatitis B surface antigen(HBsAg)seropositivity among adult Filipinos.METHODS:Testing for HBsAg was performed on serum samples from persons aged ≥ 20 years old who participated in the National Nutrition and Health Survey(NNHeS)conducted in 2003.Information on age,sex,marital status,educational attainment,employment status,and income were collected.For this study,marital status was classified as never married or otherwise(i.e.,married,divorced,separated,widowed);educational attainment was classified as high school graduate or below or at least some tertiary education;and employment status was classified as currently employed or currently unemployed.Annual income was divided into 4 quartiles in Philippine pesos(PhP):Q1,≤ PhP 53064;Q2,PhP 53065-92192;Q3,PhP 92193-173387;and Q4,≥ PhP 173388.Prevalence estimates were weighted so that they represented the general population.Social and demographic factors were correlated with HBsAg seropositivity.Multivariate analysis was used to determine independent predictors of HBsAg seropositivity.RESULTS:A total of 2150 randomly selected adults,20 years and over,out of the 4753 adult participants of NNHeS were tested for HBsAg.The HBsAg seroprevalence was 16.7%(95%CI:14.3%-19.1%),which corresponded to an estimated 7278968 persons infected with hepatitis B.There was no significant difference between males and females(17.5% vs 16.0%;P = 0.555).This corresponded to an estimated 3721775 men and 3557193 women infected with hepatitis B.The HBsAg seroprevalence peaked at age 20-39 years old,with declining prevalence in the older age groups.The only independent predictor of HBsAg seropositivity was the annual income,with persons in the highest income quartile being less likely to be HBsAg positive(age-adjusted OR = 0.51;95%CI:0.30-0.86)compared to subjects in the lowest income quartile.Sex,marital status,educational attainment,and employment status were not found to be independent predictors of HBsAg seropositivity.CONCLUSION:The high HBsAg seroprevalence among adults in the Philippines classifies the country as hyperendemic for HBV infection and appears unchanged over the last few decades.

Amphibians and Reptiles of Luzon Island,Philippines,VI: The Herpetofauna of the Subic Bay Area

We present detailed species accounts for 55 species of amphibians and reptiles(14 species of frogs,24 snakes,16 lizards,one turtle) from 24 localities in the vicinity of Subic Bay,southern Zambales Province,Luzon Island,Philippines. Although we note numerous species that are conspicuously absent in Subic Bay(and which we expect will eventually be recorded in the region),our many new records plus a summary of the available historical museum specimen data depict a diverse subset of species diversity known from the southern Zambales Mountains of southwestern Luzon. We compare our data to several other recent herpetofunal surveys from Luzon,discuss biogeographic regionalism of this complex island,and report on numerous new natural history observations for many included species. With the absence of any protected areas in the entire province,the amphibians and reptiles of Zambales should be a particularly important future conservation priority.

Slab rollback and microcontinent subduction in the evolution of the Zambales Ophiolite Complex(Philippines):A review

New radiolarian ages show that the island arc-related Acoje block of the Zambales Ophiolite Complex is possibly of Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age.Radiometric dating of its plutonic and volcanichypabyssal rocks yielded middle Eocene ages.On the other hand,the paleontological dating of the sedimentary carapace of the transitional mid-ocean ridge-island arc affiliated Coto block of the ophiolite complex,together with isotopic age datings of its dikes and mafic cumulate rocks,also yielded Eocene ages.This offers the possibility that the Zambales Ophiolite Complex could have:(1)evolved from a Mesozoic arc(Acoje block)that split to form a Cenozoic back-arc basin(Coto block),(2)through faulting,structurally juxtaposed a Mesozoic oceanic crust with a younger Cenozoic lithospheric fragment or(3)through the interplay of slab rollback,slab break-off and,at a later time,collision with a microcontinent fragment,caused the formation of an island arc-related ophiolite block(Acoje)that migrated trench-ward resulting into the generation of a back-arc basin(Coto block)with a limited subduction signature.This Meso-Cenozoic ophiolite complex is compared with the other oceanic lithosphere fragments along the western seaboard of the Philippines in the context of their evolution in terms of their recognized environments of generation.

Organizational commitment and turnover intention among rural nurses in the Philippines: Implications for nursing management

Objectives:The unrelenting migration trend of Filipino nurses to other countries has threatened the quality of patient care services in the country.This study explored the extent of nurses'organizational commitment and turnover intention in the Philippines.Furthermore,predictors of nurses'organizational commitment and turnover intention were identified.Methods:A cross-sectional research design was adopted for this study.Two hundred nurses from nine rural hospitals in the Central Philippines were asked to participate in the study and 166 nurses responded(an 83%response rate).Two standardized instruments were used:the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire and the Six-item Turnover Intention Inventory Scale.Results:Findings revealed that Philippine nurses were moderately committed(3.13±0.24)to and were undecided(2.42±0.67)whether or not to leave their organization.Nurses'age(P=0.006),gender,(t=-2.25,P=0.026),education(t=2.38,P<0.001),rank(t=4.38,P<0.001),and work experience(t=2.18,P=0.031)correlated significantly with organizational commitment,while nurses'age(P=0.028)and education(t=1.99,P=0.048)correlated significantly with turnover intention.An inverse relationship was identified between the organizational commitment and turnover intention(r=-0.22,P=0.005).Conclusion:The findings of this study highlight the need for formulation and implementation of interventions to promote life-long commitment in nurses and to reduce turnover rates.

Interactions among Micronutrient Deficiencies and Undernutrition in the Philippines

Data gathered from the 1987 National Nutrition Survey in the Philippines provided the opportunity to study the interactions among micronutrient deficiencies and undernutrition in different age groups as basis for program targeting. A randomly selected set of 50% of the households (3,200) covered by the national survey served as source of subjects. Results showed that there was a greater proportion of anemia among the undernourished (as judged by weight for age in children and weight for height in adults) (66.0%)than among the adequately nourished (54.6%) (P <0.01 ). However, the observed differencesin the proportion of serum vitamin A deficiency and of goiter among the undernourished compared to the adequately nourished were not significant. Also not significant were the observed higher prevalence of anemia among subjects with acceptable serum vitamin A levels for both adequately nourished and undernourished, and the higher prevalence of vitamin A deficiency among the non-anemics. Again there were no significant differences in the prevalence of anemia among goitrous and non-goitrous subjects, as well as the prevalence of goiter among anemic and non-anemic subjects. Neither were there significant differences in the prevalence of vitamin A deficiency among goitrous and non-goitrous subjects, but there were significant differences in the prevalence of goiter among vitamin A deficient and non-vitamin A defjcient subjects among the 7-14 years old and among pregnant and lactating women.The study concludes that at the national level, there is apparently an interaction between anemia and protein-energy undernutrition and possibly also between goiter and vitamin A deficiency in the high-risk age groups, but between anemia on the one hand and goiter and vitamin A deficiency in the other, perhaps because of clustering in the latter conditions not found in anemia and general undernutrition. These findings may be useful in targeting communities with high prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies by using prevalence of underweight and goiter as indicators for high prevalence of anemia and vitamin A deficiency, respectively

Saving Dupinga Watershed in Gabaldon, Nueva Ecija Philippines: Insights from Community Based Forest Management Model

The world is losing its forest. The study described the multi-sectoral initiatives done to protect the Dupinga watershed. By using Community Based Forest Management (CBFM) as theoretical framework and analytic descriptive method of research, issues and concerns related to watershed protection are discussed. The study argued that the multi-sectoral collaboration of the Local Government Unit of Gabaldon, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Peoples Organizations, Non Government Organizations (NGO) and Community Organization is a CBFM in progress. Alternative source of income and community tourism may strengthen and sustain the multi-stake-holders collaboration existing in the area while capacity building program for community participation and forest management may provide insights for a sustainable watershed protection and management.

Characterization of the proto-Philippine Sea Plate:Evidence from the emplaced oceanic lithospheric fragments along eastern Philippines

The proto-Philippine Sea Plate(pPSP)has been proposed by several authors to account for the origin of the Mesozoic supra-subduction ophiolites along the Philippine archipelago.In this paper,a comprehensive review of the ophiolites in the eastern portion of the Philippines is undertaken.Available data on the geology,ages and geochemical signatures of the oceanic lithospheric fragments in Luzon(Isabela,Lagonoy in Camarines Norte,and Rapu-Rapu island),Central Philippines(Samar,Tacloban,Malitbog and Southeast Bohol),and eastern Mindanao(Dinagat and Pujada)are presented.Characteristics of the Halmahera Ophiolite to the south of the Philippines are also reviewed for comparison.Nearly all of the crust-mantle sequences preserved along the eastern Philippines share Early to Late Cretaceous ages.The geochemical signatures of mantle and crustal sections reflect both mid-oceanic ridge and suprasubduction signatures.Although paleomagnetic information is currently limited to the Samar Ophiolite,results indicate a near-equatorial Mesozoic supra-subduction zone origin.In general,correlation of the crust-mantle sequences along the eastern edge of the Philippines reveal that they likely are fragments of the Mesozoic pPSP.

Frequency of typhoon occurrence accounts for the Poisson distribution of human leptospirosis cases across the different geographic regions in the Philippines

Objective: To study the distribution of human leptospirosis cases across the different geographic regions in the Philippines in 2015-2017 and to determine the relationship between the frequency of typhoon occurrence and human leptospirosis cases. Methods: Information on the frequency of leptospirosis cases and typhoon occurrence across the different regions in the Philippines from 2015 to 2017 was retrieved from the databases of the Department of Health and the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration, respectively. Descriptive measures on the prevalent cases and occurrence of typhoons across the different regions were summarized. Linear regression analysis was employed to establish the functional relationship between leptospirosis cases and typhoon occurrence. The distribution of human leptospirosis cases was assessed using the Poisson distribution. Results: The frequency of typhoon occurrence accounted for the significant linear variation in the geographic distribution of human leptospirosis cases in the Philippines(P<0.001). Moreover, the human leptospirosis cases obeyed a Poisson distribution(λ=6.89, P<0.001). Conclusions: The Philippines has frequently experienced severe weather perturbations such as typhoons resulting in flooding and subsequently increasing the risk of transmitting bacterial infections including leptospirosis. Information obtained regarding the determinants and distribution of human leptospirosis will provide better understanding of the disease propagation for subsequent design of optimal disease prevention measures, appropriate resource allocation, effective control strategies, and necessary public health programs.

Fitting and evaluation of height-diameter models for Alnus japonica in La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines

The study was conducted to develop height-diameter at breast height(HT-DBH) models for Alnus japonica in La Trinidad, Benguet,Philippines and evaluate their predictive capability.The six widely used nonlinear growth models that were selected in this study were the ChapmanRichards, Schnute, Modified logistic, Korf/Lundqvist,Weibull and Exponential. A total of 208 Alnus japonica trees were measured using standard diameter tape for DBH(1.3 m above the ground) and Vertex and transponder was used for the total height measurement. The performance of the developed models were evaluated using the fit statistics including coefficient of determination(R^2), root mean square error(RMSE), mean bias(ē), absolute mean difference(AMD), and Akaike Information Criterion(AIC). The lack-of-fit statistics was also performed for further evaluation of the performance of the models.Based on the evaluation criteria, all six models were able to determine the DBH-height relationships and fitted the data well. Using the rank analysis, the Weibull HT-DBH model had the best performance among the six commonly used nonlinear growth models. The results of this study will help forest managers especially in La Trinidad, Benguet to easily predict the total height using the Weibull model for Alnus japonica utilizing the DBH as the predicting variable.

Any alternatives to rice? Ethnobotanical insights into the dietary use of edible plants by the Higaonon tribe in Bukidnon Province, the Philippines

Though considered an agricultural country,the Philippines is the world’s largest importer of rice.The persistent problem of insufficient rice supply,however,has been exacerbated by economic crises and natural calamities.Yet,for the Higaonon tribe in Bukidnon Province,the Philippines,the rich agrobiodiversity and wild edible plants are vital for food security and resilience since the mountainous terrain in this province presents a challenge for rice cultivation.To gain insight from the indigenous edible plant knowledge of the Higaonon tribe,we conducted an ethnobotanical research to document the diversity,utilization,and biocultural refugia of both cultivated and wild edible plants.A total of 76 edible plant species belonging to 62 genera and 36 botanical families were documented.The most represented botanical families included the Fabaceae,Solanaceae,and Zingiberaceae.In terms of dietary usage,3 species were categorized as cereals;8 species were white roots,tubers,and plantains;3 species were vitamin A-rich vegetables and tubers;16 species were green leafy vegetables;12 species were categorized as other vegetables;2 species were vitamin A-rich fruits;27 species were classified as other fruits;7 species were legumes,nuts,and seeds;and 8 species were used as spices,condiments,and beverages.Using the statistical software R with ethnobotanyR package,we further calculated the ethnobotanical indices(use-report(UR),use-value(UV),number of use(NU),and fidelity level(FL))from 1254 URs in all 9 food use-categories.The species with the highest UV and UR were from a variety of nutrient-rich edible plants such as Ipomoea batatas(L.)Lam.,Musa species,Colocasia esculenta(L.)Schott,Zea mays L.,and Manihot esculenta Crantz.The extensive utilization of root and tuber crops along with corn and plantain that contain a higher amount of energy and protein,carbohydrates,minerals,and vitamins were shown to be an important nutrient-rich alternatives to rice.Whilst males appeared to be more knowledgeable of edible plant species collected from the forests and communal areas,there were no significant differences between males and females in terms of knowledge of edible plants collected from homegardens,riverbanks,and farms.The various food collection sites of the Higaonon tribe may be considered as food biocultural refugia given their socio-ecological function in food security,biodiversity conservation,and preservation of indigenous knowledge.

DOA-Rice Program in the Philippines

This paper deals with the recent hybrid rice development in the Philippines and some information about developing economic and technical cooperation in hybrid rice between China and the Philippines.

Energy Flexibility in the Power System： Challenges and Opportunites in Philippines

Energy flexibility can address the challenges of large scale integration of renewable energy resources and thereby increasing imbalance in the power system. Flexible power system can provide reliable supply, low electricity cost and sustainability. Various situations and factors influence the adoption of the flexibility solutions, such as flexible electricity generation, demand-response, and electricity storage. This paper tries to analyze the current energy flexibility solutions and the factors that can influence the energy flexibility adoption. This paper takes Philippines as case study to provide an overview of the current condition of the Philippines＇ power system and discuss the energy flexibility in the Philippines＇ power system. A further discussion and recommendation is conducted in the end of the paper.

Assessment of the Diversity of Macro Aquatic Species in Amburayan River in Kapangan, Benguet in the Philippines

Little is known about the diversity and status of endemic freshwater fishes which are valuable bio-indicators of ecosystem health and an integral part of a country’s natural heritage. Some of the less studied areas in the Philippines are the river systems in the Cordillera which are equally important as that of the other freshwater systems in the country. Amburayan River in Kapangan, Benguet is one of the rivers in the said region. Thus assessment study of the diversity of macro aquatic species was conducted to provide a baseline data in the formulation of resource management strategies and polices. By using a mixture of qualitative and quantitative research methods, the study determined and identified the presence of macro species in the study area. It applied the National Stock Assessment Program (NSAP) procedures in the gathering of samples while identification and determination of fish stocks were done by morphometric analysis of the catch with the help of available references and assistance of experts. This is later verified through submission of samples to the National Fisheries Research Development Institute (NFRDI) as part of the NSAP areas for DNA analysis. The measurement of the impacts of human activities to the river systems was done using the checklist method by Smith and Smith. The study found that there is low biodiversity of macro aquatic species in the area because of the presence of introduced species, illegal fishing practices, quarrying and mining activities. There are also no indigenous or traditional management measures conducted to conserve the river ecosystem biodiversity. The study recommended that similar study be done in other areas of the river and that the government agencies to undertake fisheries programs which would regulate the exploitation and utilization and allow regeneration of macro aquatic species in the river system.