Behavioral ecology of sika deer in spring in semi-natural area

Behaviors of sika deer in spring were studied by scan sampling, ad libitum sampling, and all-occurrence recording methods during 1998. The results showed that behaviors of sika deer in spring can be classified by seven categories: grazing, ruminating, bedding, moving, standing, drinking, alert, agonistic and other behaviors. Various behavioral models were more regular. Grazing behavior was a kind of mainly behavioral model.

Enhanced Species Diversity Unlocked by Habitat Conservation in Agricultural Landscapes: New Perspectives on Ecological Weed Management and Sustainable Intensification—Species Diversity and Habitat Conservation

The impulse to remain profitable by increasing agricultural production levels in view of the greater demand for food, provided impetus to production intensification. The aim of this review is to summarise current literature, reporting specifically on the impact of production intensification on habitats and yield constraints caused by weeds. Secondly, in alleviating these effects over the short term, ecological measures that enhance species diversity in conserved habitats and promote semi-natural habitats in the agricultural landscape, are discussed. In large-scale intensive agriculture, weed control is predominantly rooted in agrochemical applications in the form of herbicides. Long lasting intensive agricultural practices show discord both with the promotion of the biodiversity of microbes belowground and aboveground and with organisms involved in the breaking down of plant material. The presence of native species in the surroundings, in combination with hedgerows and field margins, with a comparatively intricate and balanced variety of plants in a sheltered environment, are essential for settlement of benign insects, particularly in the face of intensive agricultural production. The promising tactic of advantageous seed predators enables decreased herbicide applications. Crop mosaics arranged to advance compatibility at the landscape scale are important to bolster pollination services and insect management, while ecological variety in the surroundings acts as a safety net for habitat diversity. Weed control in combination with different tactics of vegetation use, comprising cover cropping, hedgerows and field margins, sets up safe havens in the landscape, and improves the diffusion of complementary life forms. Field margins perform a meaningful natural function as point of provision for forage, safe havens and distribution passageways for pollinators and insect predators. Production practices that promote more heterogeneity and combine high density semi-natural safe havens and habitat conservation in agro ecosystems are beneficial to species diversity across trophic levels and contribute to agricultural production stability and food safety.

The foraging behavior of Japanese macaques Macaca fuscata in a forested enclosure: Effects of nutrient composition,energy and its seasonal variation on the consumption of natural plant foods

In the wild, primate foraging behaviors are related to the diversity and nutritional properties of food, which are affected by seasonal variation. The goal of environmental enrichment is to stimulate captive animals to exhibit similar foraging behavior of their wild counterparts, e.g. to extend foraging time. We conducted a 12-month study on the foraging behavior of Japanese macaques in a semi-naturally forested enclosure to understand how they use both provisioned foods and naturally available plant foods and what are the nutritional criteria of their consumption of natural plants. We recorded time spent feeding on provisioned and natural plant foods and collected the plant parts ingested of their major plant food species monthly, when available. We conducted nutritional analysis （crude protein, crude lipid, neutral detergent fiber-‘NDF＇, ash） and calculated total non-structural carbohydrate - ‘TNC＇ and total energy of those food items. Monkeys spent 47% of their feeding time foraging on natural plant species. The consumption of plant parts varied significantly across seasons. We found that leaf items were consumed in months when crude protein, crude protein-to-NDF ratio, TNC and total energy were significantly higher and NDF was significantly lower, fruit/nut items in months when crude protein and TNC were significantly higher and crude lipid content was significantly lower, and bark items in months when TNC and total energy were higher and crude lipid content was lower. This preliminary investigation showed that the forested enclosure allowed troop members to more fully express their species typical flexible behavior by challenging them to adjust their foraging behavior to seasonal changes of plant item diversity and nutritional content, also providing the possibility for individuals to nutritionally enhance their diet .

Distribution and effects of tree leaf litter on vegetation composition and biomass in a forest–grassland ecotone

Aims After abandonment of grasslands,secondary succession leads to the invasion by woody species.This process begins with the accumulation of tree litter in the forest–grassland ecotone.Our objectives were to determine the relationships between litter amounts and vegetation composition and cover along natural forest–grassland ecotones and to experimentally study the initial effects of tree litter accumulation on grassland vegetation and on microsite conditions.Methods We established 11 transects varying from 12 to 15 m in length in different forest–grassland ecotones in the Lahn-Dill highlands,Germany,and measured the mass and cover of tree litter and the cover and composition of vegetation at five sequential positions along each transect by using 1 m2 plots with five replications.In a field experiment,we established plots subjected to different litter amounts(0,200 and 600g m^(−2))and evaluated changes in grassland vegetation,soil temperature and soil nutrient availability below the litter layer.Important Findings Tree litter amounts decrease from 650 to 65g m^(−2) across the forest–grassland ecotone.Vegetation changed from shrubs and annual species(adapted to more stressful conditions)in the forests edge to grasses,rosettes and hemirosette species(with higher competitive abilities)in the grassland.These anthropogenic forest–grassland ecotones showed abrupt edges,and the two adjacent ecosystems were characterized by different species pools and functional groups.In the field experiment,the presence of a litter layer reduced vegetation biomass and cover;the species richness was only reduced in the treatment with high litter(600g m^(−2)).Additionally,adding litter on top of vegetation also reduced thermal amplitude and the number of frost days,while increasing the availability of some nutrients,such as nitrogen and aluminium,the latter being an indicator of soil acidification.Adding a tree litter layer of 600g m^(−2) in grassland areas had strong effects on the composition and diversity of grassland vegetation by reducing the cover of several key grassland species.In,or near,forest edges,litter accumulation rapidly changes established vegetation,microsite conditions and soil nutrients.

Effects of insect infestation on rodent-mediated dispersal of Quercus aliena:results from field and enclosure experiments

Rodents influence plant establishment and regeneration by functioning as both seed predators and dispersers.However,these rodent-plant interactions can vary significantly due to various environmental conditions and the activity of other insect seed predators.Here,we use a combination of both field and enclosure(i.e.individual cage and semi-natural enclosure)experiments,to determine whether rodents can distinguish sound seeds from those infested with insects.We also demonstrate how such responses to insects are influenced by food abun-dance and other environmental factors.We presented rodents with 2 kinds of Quercus aliena seeds(sound and insect-infested seeds)in a subtropical forest in the Qinling Mountains,central China,from September to No-vember of 2011 to 2013.The results showed that rodents preferred to hoard and eat sound seeds than infested seeds in the field and semi-natural enclosure,while they preferred to eat infested seeds over sound seeds in the individual cages.In addition,both hoarding and eating decisions were influenced by food abundance.Rodents hoarded more sound seeds in years of high food abundance while they consumed more acorns in years of food shortage.Compared with field results,rodents reduced scatter-hoarding behavior in semi-natural enclosures and ate more insect-infested seeds in smaller individual cages.These results further confirm that rodents distinguish infested seeds from non-infested seeds but demonstrate that this behavior varies with conditions(i.e.environ-ment and food abundance).We suggest that such interactions will influence the dispersal and natural regenera-tion of seeds as well as predation rates on insect larvae.

Recruitment in species-rich grasslands: the effects of functional traits and propagule pressure

Aims The assembly of plant communities is a complex process which combines impacts from the species pool,dispersal and propagule pressure,niche requirements of colonizing species and the niche structure of the community.Recent theory development has incorporated all these aspects,e.g.in‘stochastic niche theory’.We investigated recruitment into a species-rich grassland community,using an experimental approach where we manipulated the trait composition of the community and examined the success of colonizing species entering with various propagule pressure.Specifically,we examined two predictions:(i)colonization success increases with increasing difference between traits of the colonizing species and the trait profile of the community and(ii)colonization success increases with increasing propagule pressure.Methods The examined communities were species-rich semi-natural grasslands located in southern Sweden.After a careful documentation of the composition of the plant communities at the experimental sites,we manipulated the trait profile of species-rich grassland plots based on the plant functional trait specific leaf area(SLA),which is correlated with several key life history functions.In addition to SLA,seed mass was also used to describe the trait profile of grassland plots.Seeds of 12 plant species from the regional species pool,varying in SLA and seed mass,were sown into plots using four different levels of propagule pressure.Recruitment was examined after 1 year.We also planted juvenile‘plug plants’of the same species which allowed us to examine survivorship and growth beyond the seedling stage.Important Findings Overall we found very limited evidence for relationships between the traits of the colonizing species and the trait profile of the community and for recruitment after sowing these relationships were contrary to the prediction.Survival of plug plants after two seasons of growth was high irrespective of the trait profile of the community,but growth of plug plants was affected by the trait profile of the surrounding community.For four of the species there was a positive effect of increased propagule pressure on colonization.The results suggest that species assembly in species-rich grasslands is not strongly dependent on the niche structure of the community.However,the finding that colonization of only a third of the species responded positively to increased propagule pressure indicates that there might be niche-related effects that were not captured by our treatments.Overall,our results indicate that the factors determining colonization in this community are species specific.Some species are able to colonize irrespective of niche relationships,provided that the propagule pressure is sufficiently high to overcome stochastic mortality after seed arrival.For other species,however,we cannot exclude that niche assembly occurred,but we failed to identify the relevant niche factor.

Seed traits and rodent community interact to determine seed fate:evidence from both enclosure and field experiments

Animal-mediated seed dispersal is an important ecological process in which a strong mutualism between animals and plants can arise.However,few studies have examined how a community of potential seed dispersers interacts with sympatric seed trees.We employed a series of experiments in the Qinling Mountains in both semi-natural enclosure and the field to assess the interactions among 3 sympatric rodent species and 3 Fagaceae tree seeds.Seed traits all showed similar tannin levels but markedly different physical traits and nutritional contents.We found that seeds with heavy weight,thick coat,and high nutritional contents were less likely to be eaten in situ but more often to be eaten after dispersal or hoarded by rodents.These results support both the handling time hypothesis and the high nutrition hypothesis.Surprisingly,we also found that rodents,maybe,preferred to consume seeds with low levels of crude fiber in situ,and to harvest and hoard those with high levels of crude fiber for later consumption.The sympatric rodent species,Cansumys canus,the largest rodent in our study,harvested and hoarded more Quercus variabilis seeds with high physical and nutritional traits,while Apodemus draco,the smallest rodent,harvested more Q.serrata seeds with low physical and nutritional traits,and Niviventer confucianus harvested and hoarded more Q.aliena seeds with medium physical and nutritional traits.Our study demonstrates that different seed traits play different roles in influencing the seed fate and the shaping of mutualism and predation interactions within a community of rodent species.

Symbiosis of Biodiversity and Tea Production Through Chagusaba

Chagusaba,which is traditional tea-grass integrated system in Shizuoka,is one of Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems（GIAHS） sites in Japan.Chagusaba provide an important habitat for natural plant species.In this study,we investigated the flora in Chagusaba and environmental factors to affect the number of native species estimated their diversity.Fifty Chagusaba were classified in to five vegetation types by Two-way indicator species analysis.In addition,high number of native plant species Chagusaba had low soil p H,covered large areas,and were in places where the land had not been modified.Through statistical analysis（GLM）,we found that land modification had an especially significant effect on the diversity of native plants,and that the diversity of native plants was reflected in the history of the use of the land.