Geophysical Reactions to Remote 2022 Tonga Eruption and to Türkiye Earthquakes in Georgia (Caucasus): Hydrogeology, Geomagnetics and Seismicity

The paper is devoted to analysis of hydrogeological, geomagnetic and seismic response to the two great remote geophysical events, 2022 Tonga volcano eruption and 2020-2023 Türkiye earthquakes in Georgia (Caucasus). The geophysical observation system in Georgia, namely, water level stations in the network of deep wells, atmospheric pressure and the geomagnetic sensors of the Dusheti Geophysical Observatory (DGO) as well as seismic data in Garni Observatory (Armenia) respond to the Tonga event by anomalies in the time series. These data show that there are two types of respond: infrasound disturbances in atmospheric pressure and seismic waves in the Earth generated by the eruption. After Tonga eruption January 15 at 04:21 UTC three groups of N-shaped waveforms were registered in the water level corresponding to the global propagation characteristics of the N-shaped waveform of infrasound signals on the barograms generated by eruption at the distance ~15,700 km: they were identified as the Lamb wave, a surface wave package running in the atmosphere with a velocity around ~314 m/s. The paper also presents the WL reactions to three strong EQs that occur in Türkiye 2020-2023, namely Elazığ, Van and Türkiye-Syria EQs. WL in Georgian well network reacts to these events by anomalies of different intensity, which points to the high sensitivity of hydrosphere to remote (several hundred km) strong EQs. The intensity and character of WL reactions depend strongly on the local hydrogeological properties of rocks, surrounding the well.

Intra-trench variations in flexural bending of the subducting Pacific Plate along the Tonga-Kermadec Trench

We conducted a detailed analysis of along-trench variations in the flexural bending of the subducting Pacific Plate at the Tonga-Kermadec Trench.Inversions were conducted to obtain best-fitting solutions of trench-axis loadings and variations in the effective elastic plate thickness for the analyzed flexural bending profiles.Results of the analyses revealed significant along-trench variations in plate flexural bending:the trench relief(W0)of 1.9 to 5.1 km;trench-axis vertical loading(V0)of-0.5×10^12 to 2.2×10^12 N/m;axial bending moment(M0)of 0.1×10^17 to 2.2×10^17 N;effective elastic plate thickness seaward of the outer-rise region(Te^M)of 20 to 65 km,trench-ward of the outer-rise(Te^M)of 11 to 33 km,and the transition distance(Xr)of 20 to 95 km.The Horizon Deep,the second greatest trench depth in the world,has the greatest trench relief(W0 of 5.1km)and trench-axis loading(V0 of 2.2×10^12N/m);these values are only slightly smaller than that of the Challenger Deep(W0 of 5.7km and V0 of 2.9×10^12N/m)and similar to that of the Sirena Deep(W0 of 5.2 km and V0 of 2.0×10^12 N/m)of the Mariana Trench,suggesting that these deeps are linked to great flexural bending of the subducting plates.Analyses using three independent methods,i.e.,the/inversion,the flexural curvature/yield strength envelope analysis,and the elasto-plastic bending model with normal faults,all yielded similar average Te reduction of 28%-36% and average Te reduction area S△Te of 1195-1402 km^2 near the trench axis.The calculated brittle yield zone depth from the flexural curvature/yield strength envelope analysis is also consistent with the distribution of the observed normal faulting earthquakes.Comparisons of the Manila,Philippine,Tonga-Kermadec,Japan,and Mariana Trenches revealed that the average values Te^M of Te^M and both in general increase with the subducting plate age.

Loto＇i Tonga： Success by Achievement--A Case Study

Loto＇i Tongas＂the big heart＂-is a term describing all that is Tongan： the passion, joy, spirit, and the mind. This quality of being Tongan shapes the way in which Tongans work together to achieve successful outcomes. Loto＇i Tonga influences activities such as community development projects, social and health services initiatives, as well as the passion seen when Tongan engages in sporting activities. This case study describes a community development project in West Auckland, New Zealand, which brought together the Tongan community. The primary aim of the project was to improve the health and wellbeing of Tongans living in West Auckland. Conducted over several years, the project resulted in the establishment of vegetable gardens, a Tongan pre-school centre, and a woman＇s home-based development initiative resulting in the production of a variety of crafts as well as well-being activities. These successful outcomes provide a clear message to both Tongan and non-Tongan leaders that a way to success in Tongan community development is to empower Tongans to be able to lead and take control over determinants of their life and their well-being. Loto＇i Tonga is a key cultural value that determines such outcomes.

Ionospheric disturbance analysis of the January 15,2022 Tonga eruption based on GPS data

Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai climactic eruption on January 15,2022,released enormous energy that affected the ionosphere over the Pacific Rim.We analyzed ionospheric disturbance following volcanic eruptions using near-field(<1000 km),regional(1000–5000 km),and far-field(5000–12000 km) global positioning system(GPS) observations.The results indicate that the near-field ionospheric perturbation that occurred 8–15 min after the cataclysmic eruption was mainly derived from the shock wave(~1000 m/s) generated by the blast,while the low-frequency branch with long-distance propagation characteristics over the regional and the far-field was mainly associated with atmospheric Lamb waves(~330 m/s).Moreover,the amplitude of disturbance and background total electron content(TEC) are related proportionally.The intensity of the volcanic eruption and the background ionospheric conditions determine the magnitude of ionospheric responses.TEC perturbations were invisible on the reference days.Furthermore,the source location and onset time were calculated using the ray tracing technique,which confirms that the Tonga event triggered the ionospheric anomaly beyond the crater.Finally,the change in the frequency of the perturbations coincided with the arrival of the initial tsunami,implying the generation of a meteotsunami.

Plumbing System of Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha'apai Volcano

The Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha’apai submarine volcano has experienced repeated eruptions in the latest decades.The recent one,in January 2022,released an enormous amount of energy inducing global perturbations,as tsunamis and atmospheric waves.The structure of the volcano is poorly understood,especially its internal structure.Deep-seated magmatic connections are difficult to define or visualize.We use a high-resolution gravity data set obtained via satellite to calculate the Bouguer anomaly over its structure,to perform a preliminary exploration of its interior.Executing 3D gravity inversions,we find a complex plumbing system with various exhaust trajectories and multiple surface pockets of low-density material within the volcanic edifice;some appear to be associated with ring fractures.This is in line with the report of the 2009 eruption,described as beginning from multiple vents.We found no signs of a magma chamber within 6 km depth,although several volcanic conduits are identified from such depth to the surface.Density variations occur within a plumbing conduit or may vary from one conduit to another in the same volcano.These models yield quantitative estimates for areas of magma-water interaction,constituting a baseline to compare with structural changes to be induced in future eruptions.

基于GPS TEC的2022年1月15日汤加火山喷发激起的电离层行扰分析

2022年1月15日南太平洋汤加海底火山发生剧烈喷发,是近30年来最大规模的火山爆发,产生的强烈大气波动为开展火山喷发电离层扰动研究提供了难得的机会。本文利用GPS数据探测火山附近、新西兰、澳大利亚和中国地区的电离层扰动,从波形、频率、传播速度和时空分布等角度分析汤加火山喷发电离层行扰(TIDs)的特征,并利用电离层测高站、海平面监测站和大气压监测站的观测数据进一步验证TIDs的传播特征。研究结果发现,汤加火山喷发在其附近区域、新西兰、澳大利亚和中国地区引起了3类TIDs。在火山附近东、西、南、北方向上均探测到第一类TIDs, TIDs的传播速度为617~972 m/s,该类TIDs极有可能由火山喷发产生的声波引起。汤加火山喷发仅在火山附近东、西方向引起第二类TIDs,其传播速度分别为472 m/s和418 m/s,可能由声波传播过程中衍生的声重力波或者混合波引起,形成机理有待进一步研究。汤加火山喷发在新西兰、澳大利亚和中国地区引发了第三类TIDs,其传播速度为328~352 m/s,该类TIDs与Lamb波密切相关。

海底火山喷发大气冲击波激发的轴对称海啸波数值模型

海底火山喷发引发海啸具有多源激发机制,包括水下爆炸、边坡失稳、火山口坍塌、碎屑流、地震以及大气扰动.为了深入认识轴对称移动气压扰动激发海啸的机理,探究气压扰动参数对水波形态的影响规律,本文在柱面孤立波Boussinesq模型的基础上,考虑水面移动气压扰动作用,建立了由火山喷发激发的轴对称移动气压场所驱动的海啸波数值模型.利用不同地形上柱面波的传播算例验证了本模型的精确性与稳定性.数值模拟了2022年汤加火山喷发大气扰动激发海啸事件,并与太平洋DART浮标实测数据比较,较好地复演了大气扰动驱动海啸波的远场传播过程,并讨论了波动在深水区的色散行为.研究了轴对称气压扰动的径向移速、强度及尺度对波动演化特征的影响,结果显示:气压移速与浅水波速的相对大小显著影响波形,当二者接近时将激发Proudman共振.在共振条件下,波幅与径向传播距离呈近似线性增长关系,波幅放大因子随气压尺度增大而减小.在远离共振条件时,气压强度和尺度对波幅放大因子的影响相对较小,受波能流守恒约束柱面自由波幅则沿程衰减,受迫波幅值近似按气压衰减规律变化.

Detection of the Lehmann discontinuity beneath Tonga with short-period waveform data from Hi-net

The undulation and characteristics of the Lehmann discontinuity at the base of the Low Velocity Zone in the upper mantle are significant for understanding the coupling between the lithosphere and asthenosphere, and corresponding geodynamic processes. Vertical waveform data from six earthquakes with focal depths between 75 and 150 km and magnitudes Mb 5.0–6.0 since 2004 were collected from the short-period Hi-net array. Selected waveform data were processed for each event network pair using the Nth-root slant stack method to retrieve the SdP conversion phases from the possible 220 km(Lehmann) discontinuity. The conversion points related to the SdP phases show that there is a clear and flat velocity interface around 230 km, suggesting that there is a sinking of the Lehmann discontinuity beneath Tonga with no obvious undulation. The 230 km depth of the Lehmann discontinuity in this location could be explained by an hypothesis of transition in the deformation mechanism from dislocation creep to diffusion creep.

Potential Impact of Tonga Volcano Eruption on Global Mean Surface Air Temperature

The undersea volcano,located in the South Pacific island nation of Tonga,violently erupted from 14 to 15 January 2022.The Tonga volcano eruption has aroused extensive discussion in the climate change field.Some climatologists believe that this event will cause little effect on global climate change while others insist that it will trigger“the year without a summer”as the Tambora eruption did in 1815.How will the Tonga volcano eruption affect global climate change?Based on the indices of past volcanic eruptions and the eruption data of El Chichón volcano in 1982,we use a simplified radiation equilibrium model to quantify the stratospheric aerosol radiative forcing and the change in global mean surface air temperature(Ts)caused by the Tonga volcano eruption.The results show that the global average Ts will decrease by about 0.0315-0.1118℃in the next 1-2 years.The Tonga eruption will slightly slow down the global warming in a short period of time,but it will not change the global warming trend in the long term.In addition,we propose a generalized approach for estimating the impact of future volcanic eruption on global mean T_(s).

《国际中文教育中文水平等级标准》与海外国别中文教学大纲的对接——以太平洋岛国汤加为例

随着区域国别中文教育与传播研究的兴起,以及越来越多的国家将中文纳入本国国民教育体系,包括中文教学大纲本土化在内的国别中文教育本土化发展愈发受到关注。《国际中文教育中文水平等级标准》的发布为世界各地的中文教育提供了全方位、多维度的重要参考,本文以汤加《中文教学大纲》为例,从“引”与“融”两个方面探讨二者对接的可行性及实现路径,是一次实践层面的有益尝试,既可为《等级标准》的本土化应用提供一个具体案例,也可为其他太平洋岛国乃至更多国家制定或修订中文教学大纲提供借鉴。

汤加火山运动引起的井水位动态特征提取

为了对2022年1月15日汤加火山爆发引起的井水位变化特征进行识别、提取,以河北唐山地区4口观测井为研究对象,使用EEMD方法分别处理井水位和气压观测数据,将观测数据表征的信号从频率由高到低分为多个IMF分量。通过高频分量描述井水位和气压高频事件的变化特征,结合Hilbert谱分析得到两者高频事件能量波动所在频段范围一致,发生时间相近,进一步对其进行相干性分析。结果表明汤加火山地震爆发后,井水位出现了两次变化,水位波形变化趋势与气压波形同步反向变化,相干性结果表明井水位与气压显著相关,林西矿井对气压剧烈变化响应更为灵敏。在此基础上,分析EEMD方法对短时间序列井水位处理的效能,探索Hilbert谱识别井水位干扰信号的能力。

2022汤加海底火山活动的测高海面观测异常分析

2022年1月14日—2022年1月15日,汤加海底火山发生剧烈喷发并造成全球性海啸,引起了国际广泛关注。针对汤加火山喷发引起的海洋环境异常综合观测,本文提出了利用Jason-3测高卫星数据研究火山喷发对海洋环境的短期和长期影响。针对短期影响,利用距离火山最近的弧段186的重复轨道,对比不同时间观测值,分析火山喷发时期海平面变化、有效波高和电离层总电子含量(TEC)异常。结果表明:卫星测高可观测到火山喷发引起的海面异常。火山喷发期间:海平面产生短期变化,原因可能与火山活动引起的波浪、海洋环境变化和海底地形变化有关;火山喷发引起部分海域有效波高显著增加,弧段186区域电离层TEC明显降低。针对长期影响,构建了研究区域内2016年2月—2023年2月共7年区域平均海面观测时间序列,并采用小波变换、奇异谱分析方法探测时间序列中的异常扰动,分析其与火山活动的关系,从而推断火山喷发活动对海洋环境的长期影响。结果表明:火山喷发可能会对海平面变化产生长期影响,海平面变化分布与俯冲带位置相关,其影响还与EI Nino和La Nina事件产生的影响耦合,需要更多资料进一步分析;另外,汤加火山喷发对研究海域内的平均有效波高和电离层TEC分布长期影响较小。

跨大洋水声传播建模与绕射效应

跨大洋水声传播通常指传播距离超过一万公里、低频声波与深海海洋环境大尺度、连续相互作用的物理过程,是超远程水声探测的理论基础.水平绕射是指主要由水体声速变化引起的累积效应,是跨大洋水声传播中非常重要的物理现象.跨大洋水声传播水平绕射会引起声传播路径、到达信号方位角和声传播损失的巨大变化,导致因地形遮挡所产生的“声影区”变为“声照亮区”,有利于水声事件的跨大洋水声传播和信号的超远程检测.为了克服传统柱坐标系下水声传播模型空间分辨率逐渐变差的缺点,本文首先在直角坐标系下构建了一种跨大洋三维水下声传播模型,可实现近、远程声场空间分辨率不变的声场仿真.然后在美国声学学会标准斜坡地形等基准问题下,通过比较镜像解和仿真结果以验证该模型的精度.最后以2022年1月15日的汤加海底火山喷发为实例,开展了火山T波传播建模仿真,实现了从太平洋跨越到大西洋的水声场快速计算.声场计算范围超过16000 km.结果表明,太平洋火山所激发的T波在南美洲大陆的南端产生了绕射,能够经非大圆路径到达大西洋中部并为阿松森岛的水听器三联体H10N所探测到.通过对比不同波导条件下的声场模型仿真结果,发现在南极附近海域声速的变化是产生声水平绕射效应的主要原因.定量比较结果表明,当考虑水体声速变化的累积效应时,在水平距离10000~16500 km范围的垂直剖面内声传播损失降幅可达60 dB以上,在850 m深度的水平面内声传播损失降幅也达到60 dB以上.水体声速变化引起的绕射效应是水声观测系统能够接收到跨大洋传播声信号的根本原因.

汤加灾后国际救援的开展及对中国启示

“一带一路”沿线国家汤加遭遇突发性自然灾害后,多方国际力量参与到人道主义救援之中,形成多元化救援体系,协调有序展开救灾物资运送、基金募集、服务支援队派遣及灾后恢复重建工作。但此次国际救援也面临诸多困境,如COVID-19的蔓延阻碍救援效率、灾害造成的连锁式破坏提升救援难度、太平洋地缘战略竞争对中国参与救援的排斥等。面对上述问题,国际社会签署“无接触式”救援协议,帮助汤加建立完善医疗服务与防疫系统,制定具有针对性的救援方案。借鉴汤加灾后国际救援行动经验,中国应树立友好合作的国际形象,升级和完善现有国际合作机制,重视国内法律的完善与军事力量调用的合法性,综合提升中国在国际救援中的能力建设。

汤加文化中的Tauhi Vā

Tauhi vā是汤加乃至太平洋文化中非常重要的一个概念,是指保持、维持或滋养社会关系。人们通过履行各自的责任(fai fatongia),来构建和谐美好的社会关系。这一概念深刻影响着汤加人日常生活的方方面面,同时也塑造了汤加人的思维和行为方式。然而近年来,人们在tauhi vā的过程中却逐渐偏离了其初衷而导致不和谐或不对称的产生。汤加人在转变现有观念的同时,也在积极探索tauhi vā的新方式,以期实现tauhi vā的良性循环和可持续发展。

汤加-克马德克海沟重力异常特征及其地质研究意义

位于西南太平洋板块和澳大利亚板块之间的汤加-克马德克海沟是地球动力学研究的最重要地区之一。根据全球卫星重力异常数据库获取卫星测高重力异常和海底地形数据,基于Surfer软件绘制图像对汤加-克马德克海沟进行初步分析。结果显示:汤加-克马德克海沟的重力场主要分布具有不对称的V字形横剖面,其海洋一侧坡度较缓,陆地一侧坡度较陡;沿着汤加-克马德克俯冲带弧向海洋延伸的路径上,可以观察到大规模的正断层现象。

The formation of explosive volcanos at the circum-Pacific convergent margin during the last century

The circum-Pacific convergent margin is known as"the Ring of Fire",with abundant volcano eruptions.Large eruptions are rare but very disastrous.It remains obscure how are large explosive volcanos formed and where are the danger zones.Three largest eruptions since 1900,the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai,the Mt.Pinatubo,and the Novarupta were found to be associated with subductions of volatile-rich sediments and located close to slab windows.Among them,the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai is close to subducting seamount chains;the Mt.Pinatubo is right next to subducting fossil ridges.Both seamount chains and fossil ridges have water depths much shallower than the carbonate compensation depths(CCD)in the Pacific Ocean.Seismic image shows that a seamount is subducting towards the Novarupta volcano.Subduction of volatile-rich sediments and a slab window nearby are the two most important favorable conditions for catastrophic eruptions.Slab windows expose the mantle wedge to the hot asthenosphere,which increases the temperature and dramatically promotes the partial melting of the carbonate-fluxed domains,forming volatile-rich magmas that powered explosive eruptions.

南太平洋典型岛国海洋生态环境状况及其对汤加火山爆发的响应

南太平洋岛国大多四面环海且国土面积狭小,多为生态环境脆弱区。基于此,本文利用多源卫星数据,对瑙鲁、帕劳、图瓦卢、马绍尔群岛四国的海洋生态环境进行监测,基于长时间序列遥感结果的回溯,分析了其时空变化,并对比分析了汤加火山爆发前后,各国生态环境是否发生显著变化。结果显示:1)在气候态时空分布上,南太平洋岛屿国家周边海域海表温度和透明度一直维持在较高水平,叶绿素和净初级生产力则随离岸距离增加快速下降;2)升温、酸化和海平面升高是四个岛屿国家周边海域面临的共同问题;3)汤加火山的爆发对于南太平洋四岛国的沿岸悬浮物质量浓度、海表温度等无明显影响;4)火山爆发前半个月海岛地表温度以及周边海域悬浮物质量浓度异常升高的现象对利用遥感手段进行灾害预警预报具有启示作用。

Influence of Volcanic Activity on Weather and Climate Changes

This paper examines possible connections between volcanic eruptions and their consequences on the weather. Gas emissions, such as CO2 and SO2, are vital in the troposphere and change temperatures on Earth’s surface. The water vapor discharges can be moved for three atmospheric layers creating extra atmospheric rivers and disrupting the Polar vortex. All those deviations will bring consequences to the weather. It depends on the intensity, the emission type, the kind of volcano, and the location. Then, eruptions can change the atmospheric layers with sudden fluctuations unexpected for the season.

汤加火山喷发SO_(2)全球传输扩散态势模拟研究

针对2022年1月汤加火山喷发SO_(2)全球扩散态势,采用拉格朗日粒子扩散模式(FLEXPART),基于卫星监测信息对SO_(2)源项进行评估和设计,在此基础上开展数值模拟(截至2022年2月20日).结果表明,火山喷发初期模式对SO_(2)南北扩散范围模拟偏窄,但随着时间演变与观测呈现逐渐吻合趋势;SO_(2)主体位于南半球,向西传输区域主要位于0~30°S纬度带,最大传输速度约22.5°/d,在研究时段跨赤道传输作用弱,对北半球和我国影响小;SO_(2)在西向传输过程中总体保持前高后低倾斜态势,传输最快高度和向上扩散最大高度分别位于27km和31km左右;截至2月20日,SO_(2)累积地面沉降已扩展至60°N以南全球大部分区域,主要区域位于0~50°S纬度带,沉降最强地区位于澳大利亚东部、汤加火山西北部和南美洲南部.研究结果可为汤加火山气候效应评估提供数据支撑和思路借鉴.