Tigris, Euphrates, and Shatt Al-Arab River System: Historic and Modern Attempts to Manage and Restore Iraq’s Lifeline

In Iraq, the principal rivers are the Tigris, Shatt Al-Arab and Euphrates. From their headwater sources in the mountains of eastern Türkiye, these rivers descend through valleys and gorges and flow into the uplands of Syria and northern and central alluvial plain of Iraq. The Euphrates and Tigris Rivers confluence to form the Shatt Al-Arab river at Al-Qurnah which flows into the Persian Gulf. From sources in the Zagros Mountains other tributaries join the Tigris from the east. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flow in a southeastern direction through the central plain and discharge into the Mesopotamian Marshes, which include permanent marshes, lakes, and riparian habitat. The rivers and their tributaries drain an area of 879,790 km2 which includes almost the entire area of Iraq as well as land in Syria, Türkiye, Kuwait and Iran. The region has historical importance as part of the Fertile Crescent region and where Mesopotamian civilization first emerged. The post war reconstruction efforts in the Yusifiyah township, an important food production region for Baghdad, illustrate the importance of these water resources. In addition, the advent of soil tunnels by Iraqi insurgents within the riverine corridors will make reconstruction of this resource more complex. The primary objectives of this study are to assess lessons learned, manage, and restore the Tigris, Euphrates, and Shatt Al-Arab river system lifeline in Iraq.

Procleix TIGRIS核酸分析系统分析性能及操作性能确认研究

目的在Procleix TIGRIS核酸分析系统（以下简称TIGRIS系统）正式用于血液筛查之前，验证其分析性能及操作性能，确认其在实验室的适用性，确保系统正式运行后得到有效使用，检测过程得到有效控制。方法本研究包含TIGRIS系统分析性能、操作性能的确认与验证。采用HIV-1、HCV、HBV的WHO标准株验证TIGRIS系统的分析灵敏度；采用低浓度HIV、HCV、HBV的溶血（FHb为5000mg／L）、乳糜血液（甘油三酯为5．61mmol／L）样本，评估TIGRIS系统的抗噪能力；采用高浓度阳性样本（〉10^6IU／mL）评估检测系统的抗交叉污染能力；从通量和压力测试、无效工作列表和无效检测、试剂稳定性等方面对检测系统的操作性能进行分析；采用PT血清盘对不同检测系统进行性能比对。结果采用TIGRIS系统，Procleix Ultrio分析试剂，本实验室对WHO的HIV-1、HCV、HBV3种标准病毒株的95％检出限分别为18．1IU／mL[（12．2～36．9）IU／mL]、7．4IU／mL[（4．7—15．2）IU／mL]、11．7IU／mL[（7．6～22．5）IU／mL]，Procleix Ultrio Discriminatory Assay分析试剂对HIV-1、HCV、HBV3种病毒的95％检出限分别为16．3IU／mL[（10．0—47．10）IU／mL]、5．8IU／mL[（3．5—14．2）IU／mL]、23．8IU／mL[（13．0—61．6）IU／mL]。符合试剂厂商对分析灵敏度的要求。采用Procleix Ultrio分析试剂进行核酸检测时，血红蛋白含量为5000mg/L的溶血血浆及乳糜（甘油三酯为5．61mmol／L）对低浓度HIV-1（浓度为40IU／mL）、HCV（10IU／mL）、HBV（20IU／mL）标本的分析性能没有显著影响。检测样本中高浓度阳性样本（〉10^6IU／mL）的比率为10％及以下时，使用TIGRIS系统进行检测不存在交叉污染现象。而在阳性标本比率增加到20％及50％时，会出现气溶胶所致的假阳性结果，但不会造成真正的样本污染。Procleix TIGRIS系统操作性能稳定，且不同设备之间性能的均一性高。符合厂方的出厂设计要求。结论TIGRIS系统是1套有着极高灵敏度的全自动化核酸检测系统。实验室在系统使用前，确认系统的分析灵敏度达到试剂生产商对检测性能的要求，说明实验室已经具备系统所要求的检测能力。并确认标本溶血、乳糜血等干扰因素对TIGRIS系统分析结果准确性无显著影响。在阳性标本比率不超过10％的情况下，不会对阴性标本的检测造成影响。可以满足血液中心对标本的常规核酸检测要求。

Seasonal Variations of Some Ecological Parameters in Tigris River Water at Baghdad Region, Iraq

This study aimed at using nine ecological parameters in evaluating the quality of the Tigris River for public usage, by choosing five sampling sites along the river in Baghdad area. These parameters included temperature, pH, the saturated ratio by dissolved oxygen (%sat), biological oxygen demand (BOD5), nitrate (NO3?1), phosphate (PO4?3), fecal coliform (FC) turbidity and total dissolved solids (TDS), and these parameters were used for calculating overall water quality index in the Tigris River at study area. The results showed high values of turbidity and TDS, as well as high count of FC in all study stations, while other studied parameters were within permissible limit defined by world health organization and Iraqi criteria. The results of the overall water quality index indicated that the Tigris River was in class medium, therefore the Tigris River water in study area is relatively not safe for direct domestic use in all seasons.

Historical Change on Distribution and Quantity of the South-China Tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis)

As one of five survived tiger subspecies, the South-China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis) specially disperses in China. This paper dedicated distribution and quantity of wild South-China tiger, and also introduced distribution, quantity and pedigree of captive South-China tiger. In the middle of this century, about several thousands South-China tiger distributed in following provinces, such as Hunan, Jiangxi, Guizhou, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Zhejiang, Hubei, Sichuan, Henan, Shanxi, Shanxi, Gansu. etc. Until now, there are only about 20–30 wild South-China tigers distributing in the provinces of Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, and Hunan, Sichuan, and 50 captive South-China tiger are raised in zoos of China.

An Assessment of Biological Pollution in Certain Sector of Lower AL-Zab and River Tigris Waters Using Bacterial Indicators and Related Factors in Iraq

This study was conducted during 2004 utilizing selected sectors of River Tigris and the This study was conducted during 2004 utilizing selected sectors of River Tigris and the Lower Al-Zab River among Kirkuk and Salahaldeen Governerates of Iraq. Water samples from eight stations were analyzed for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, total viable counts of bacteria, Oxygen biological demand (BOD), water turbidity, electrical conductivity and temperature. The mean total viable counts (TVC,s) of bacteria isolated was almost 800 cells/ml. The means of total coliforms (TC) and faecal coliforms (FC) were almost 708 and 436 per 100 ml of water samples tested respectively.The oxygen biological demand was more than 8 mg/l. The mean of water tubidity was more than 35 ntu. The assessment of water electrical conductivity revealed almost 354 us/cm. The present study revealed a wide variation in the water quality due to different pollution pressures affected the different sites of River Tigris and Al-Zab River waters. These water sources are used for drinking and other human activities. The Lower Al-Zab River was less affected by the mentioned factors compared to River Tigris The analysis of variance showed a significant difference between BOD values re- corded at different months and the P value was less than 0.5. The overall mean of BOD was 2.4 mg/l which is suitable for human consumption after drinking water purification process with reference to European characterizations 74/ 464/EEC of waters used as sources for drinking waters.

Flow Variation of the Major Tributaries of Tigris River Due to Climate Change

Iraq relies greatly on the flow of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers and their tributaries. Five tributaries namely Khabour, Greater Zab, Lesser Zab, AlAdhiam and Daylia, which are the major tributaries of Tigris River, sustain Northern Iraq Region, a semi-arid, mainly a pastureland. These tributaries contribute about 24 km3 of water annually. The discharge in the tributaries, in recent times, has been suffering increasing variability contributing to more severe droughts and floods apparently due to climate change. This is because there were no dams constructed outside Iraq previously. For an appropriate appreciation, Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was used to evaluate the impact of climate change on their discharge for a half-centennial lead time to 2046-2064 and a centennial lead time to 2080-2100. The suitability of the model was first evaluated, and then, outputs from six GCMs were incorporated to evaluate the impacts of climate change on water resources under three emission scenarios: A1B, A2 and B1. The results showed that water resources are expected to decrease with time.

Procleidx TIGRIS System检测方法学性能验证评价

目的对Procleix TIGRIS全自动核酸检测系统进行验证,验证其分析性能及操作性能,对核酸检测项目进行性能验证,为NAT检测的质量控制和过程控制提供数据支持,保证所采用的相关试剂盒和仪器设备的分析性能满足临床检测的要求和实验室检测结果的准确性。方法采用TMA技术对检测下限、特异性、符合率、抗干扰能力、检测灵敏度进行实验分析,评估核酸检测系统的操作性能及检测性能。结果本实验室对定值标准物质进行不同浓度稀释后测定HBV DNA的测定下限为0.25 IU/mL;HIV RNA的测定下限为1.25 IU/mL;HCV RNA的测定下限为0.375 IU/mL。轻度和中度脂血、溶血对核酸联检及鉴别检测结果无影响。特异性、符合率和灵敏度性能验证结果均合格。结论 TIGRIS核酸检测系统不同设备间不存在检测性能间的差异,分析性能可以满足本中心对标本的常规核酸检测要求。

Hydro-Politics of the Tigris and Euphrates Basins

The supply of fresh water is essential to life, socioeconomic development, and political stability in Middle East. Turkey, Syria and Iraq are the main riparian countries in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Turkey is the riparian hegemon for a long time due to its structural power and dominant river position. Iraq and Syria are the lower countries in the basin and for this reason they always like to ensure the quantity of water required to satisfy their requirements. The conflict between riparian countries is due to several factors. These are: population growth rate and food security, energy security, economic and technological development, political fragmentation, international water laws, water and management availability and public awareness. There have been a number of attempts to find a common ground on water issues between the main three riparian countries since 1920 but no agreement signed yet. Present situation is very bad in Syria and Iraq where thousands of people have no access to water and farmers are leaving their land because of draught. Such situation will definitely raise tension and might lead to war. To avoid this, a mediator that has the capability to bring all countries concerned to the negotiation table is required. In addition, Syria and Iraq are to adopt prudent strategic plan based on resources development theory to ensure good water management and minimum water loses.

THE WATER RESOURCES IN THE EUPHRATES RIVER AND THE TIGRIS RIVER VALLEYS AND POLITICAL RELATION BETWEEN COUNTRIES CONCERNED

Recently at home and abroad there appears a view that owing to scarcity of the water resources and rapid increase in population in the Middle East and existing of large rivers, such as the Euphrates River and the Tigris River, the contradictions over the water resources have become increasingly sharp among the countries concerned, and a war for water will soon break out in the region. The authors of the present paper, however, put forward a different view, believing that no war for controlling the water resources will take place in the region.

Evaluation of Tigris River by Water Quality Index Analysis Using C++ Program

In the capital city of Baghdad, The surface water suffering from effect of conservative pollutants. Baghdad city has two rivers, the main river Tigris River and Diyala River in boundary of Baghdad city (Jassir Diyala) eastern of Baghdad. The present study deals with the evaluation of water quality of Tigris River within Baghdad. In the case of Tigris River the concentrations of TH, TDS, PO4 and SO4 were found to lie outside the acceptable range of WHO standards by using WQI analysis and C++ program.

Evaluating Raw and Treated Water Quality of Tigris River within Baghdad by Index Analysis

A water quality index (WQI) is a single value indicator of the water quality determined through sum-marizing multiple parameters of water test results into simple terms for management and decission makers. In this paper, thirteen parameters were considered. On the basis of these data, raw and treated drinking water from Tigris River within Baghdad were analyzed. Cluster analysis conducted on the WQI data in this area was applied to detect the fluctuation of water quality. In this study, WQI showed that Tigris water never reached “Excellent” levels nor fallen to “Unsuitable” condition, except in occasional untreated water samples. Effects of various sources of pollution were evident and the needs for intensive studies on WQI became evident.

Evaluation of Dredging Operations for Tigris River within Baghdad, Iraq

River Tigris divides Baghdad, capital of Iraq, in two parts. The reach of the river within Baghdad is about 60 km long. Many islands and bars are obstructing the flow of the river within Baghdad. To overcome this problem, dredging operations started along most of Tigris River inside Baghdad City to remove many islands and side bars, which reduced the flooding capacity and the efficiency of water intakes. An examination for the dredging plan under process and two proposed additional plans was performed using the Hydrologic Engineering Centers River Analysis System software (HEC-RAS) for a 50 km long river reach to investigate whether they can recover the designed flooding capacity of the river or just improving it. Calibration and verification processes were implemented in the model using observed water levels at Sarai Baghdad gauging station and along the last 15 km of the river reach. Comparisons of computed water levels were conducted with those of previous studies and historical data. Some improvement of flood capacity was achieved based on the recorded data of the last three decades. Cautions about the water intakes should be considered to maintain their function with the expected drop in water level due to dredging operations.

Investigating Mercury Existence in Some Stations in Tigris River in Iraq

Mercury concentration in water, sediments and two aquatic plants were measured in the Tigris River for the period in 2013 Hg concentrations in water between 0.18-0.74 μg/g, however, in sediments ranged between 0.66-0.73 lag/g. The concentrations of accumulated mercury in aquatic plants ranged in Ceratophyllum demersum and Phragmitus australis were 0.035-0.022, 0.028-0.023 μg/g, respectively. The concentration bioconcentration factor B.C.F range between 0.331-0.209 μg/g and B.S.F 0.043-0.011 μg/g. These results indicate the ability of the aquatic plants of Tigris River to accumulate elements in their tissues more than water consequently, mercury concentrations in the food chain path way could cause health problems on public health by transfer through aquatic organisms to human. The studied plants could be considered as bioindicator for elements flow to the river from natural and anthropogenic sources. The study showed there is an increase in the concentration of this element in the Tigris River and due to the low rate of discharge of river water, which leads to high concentrations of ions dissolved and effect divorced industrial waste and sewage and irrigation water, especially in the area of Zafaraniyah a result of the large number of events industrialized as well as the impact of the Diyala River on the River Tigris.

Meandering of Tributaries of the Tigris River Due to Mass Movements within Iraq

Tigris and Euphrates are the main rivers in Iraq. The former has 5 main tributaries while the latter has no tributaries within Iraq. All these rivers exhibit meandering and/or shifting of their courses due to many reasons;such as mass movements and alluvial fan's development. The meandering and shifting of river courses due to mass movements is dealt with in this study. Many examples are given from different parts of Iraq within different rivers and streams. In each case, the geology of the involved area is described;the reasons of the shifting and/or meandering of the river course are given. GIS technique was used to determine the coverage of the involved area. Landsat, Google Earth and DEM images were used to indicate the suffered areas from shifting and meandering of the rivers and streams. When possible, age of the shifting and/or meandering of the river and stream courses was estimated;using exposure age determination;mainly depending on the presence of river terraces, erosional forms, vegetation cover and the maturity of the involved area. Some of the given examples of shifting of river courses were found to be still active;others are inactive. In many cases, indications for very large mass movement phenomena were seen. Moreover, some of the large involved areas are highly populated, others includes few houses and/ or farms. The majority of the meanders are developed due to mass movement phenomena;others are caused by alluvial fans and/or tectonic features, lime plunging of anticlines.

Assessment of Water Quality in Tigris River-Iraq by Using GIS Mapping

In this study, 96 water samples were collected from the Tigris River within Baghdad city. These samples were used for studying the physical and chemical parameters by using a geographical information system GIS (spatial analysis). The analytical results show high concentration of total dissolved solid (TDS), electric conductivity (EC), total hardness, Sulphate (SO4), Chloride (Cl) and Iron (Fe), which indicates signs of deterioration. On the other hand, the values of pH, calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and fluoride (F) are within permissible limits as per World Health Organization (WHO) and Iraqi Criteria.

Expected Future of Water Resources within Tigris-Euphrates Rivers Basin,Iraq

Iraq is one of the riparian countries within basins of Tigris-Euphrates Rivers in the Middle East region. The region is currently facing water shortage problems due to the increase of the demand and climate changes. In the present study, average monthly water flow measurements for 15 stream flow gaging stations within basins of these rivers in Iraq with population growth rate data in some of its part were used to evaluate the reality of the current situation and future challenges of water availability and demand in Iraq. The results showed that Iraq receives annually 70.92 km3 of water 45.4 and 25.52 km3 from River Tigris and Euphrates respectively. An amount of 18.04 km3 of the Tigris water comes from Turkey while 27.36 km3 is supplied by its tributaries inside Iraq. The whole amount of water in the Euphrates Rivers comes outside the Iraqi borders. Annual decrease of the water inflow is 0.1335 km3·year-1 for Tigris and 0.245 km3·year-1 for Euphrates. This implies that the annual percentage reduction of inflow rates for the two rivers is 0.294% and 0.960%, respectively. Iraq consumes annually 88.89% (63.05 km3) of incoming water from the two rivers, where about 60.43% and 39.57% are from Rivers Tigris and Euphrates respectively. Water demand increases annually by 1.002 km3, of which 0.5271 km3 and 0.475 km3 are within Tigris and Euphrates basins respectively. The average water demand in 2020 will increase to 42.844 km3·year-1 for Tigris basin and for Euphrates 29.225 km3·year-1 (total 72.069 km3·year-1), while water availability will decrease to 63.46 km3·year-1. This means that the overall water shortage will be restricted to 8.61 km3.

Unveiling the Nexus the link between water quality index and phthalic acid ester concentrations in Tigris River

Monitoring water quality in an aquatic system is a crucial objective in pursuing sustainable development,despite the challenges posed by water scarcity and the impact of climate change.The objective of the present study was to examine the water quality of the Tigris River along its course from the point of entry into Baghdad city to its exit,particularly in the presence of Phthalic Acid Esters(PAEs).In both dry and wet seasons and from five sites of the river,nine environmental factors(Turbidity,Total dissolved solids,pH,dissolved oxygen,Chloride,nitrate,phosphate,sulfate,and Biological oxygen demand)and three PAEs(di-n-butyl phthalate(DBP),di-isononyl phthalate(DiNP),and di-2-ethyl hexyl phthalate(DEHP))were investigated.Results revealed that the river has high levels of turbidity and Total dissolved solids,slightly alkaline,and well-aerated(dissolved oxygen>7 mg/L).Chloride,nitrate,phosphate,and sulfate values varied between seasons,as high values were recorded in the wet season.Biochemical oxygen demand levels were higher during the dry season.The highest value of total PAEs(2.20μg/L)was observed during the dry season,and the lowest value was in the wet season(1.16μg/L).The HQ results revealed that the river was ranked as a moderate risk area.However the water quality index and environmental risk index classified the water quality as a poor category,with a high-risk score in the study sites within Baghdad city.Therefore,despite the acceptable limit of PAEs in the river's water(<3μg/L),its presence is an early alarm to withdraw attention to its environmental risk.These findings highlight the need for appropriate measures to control and remove pollutants to ensure a safe and healthy water supply in the Tigris River.

无偿献血者血液筛查中Tigris核酸检测系统检测结果无效的原因分析

目的探讨无偿献血者血液筛查中,Tigris核酸检测(NAT)系统检测结果无效的具体情况及原因。方法选择2018和2019年,成都市血液中心Tigris系统NAT结果无效的3 752份无偿献血者血液标本为研究对象。其中,2018年NAT结果无效标本为2 397份,2019年为1 355份。采用回顾性分析方法,收集本中心2018和2019年Tigris系统NAT的总检测标本数、总检测结果无效标本数、无效工作列表数等数据资料,以及导致Tigris系统NAT结果无效的原因。2018和2019年Tigris系统NAT的无效检测率、工作列表无效运行率、有效工作列表中标本的无效检测率、工作列表无效运行原因构成比、有效工作列表中检测结果无效原因构成比等计数资料比较,采用χ^(2)检验。结果2018年和2019年成都市血液中心Tigris系统NAT结果无效的情况如下。① 2018年总无效检测率为2.31%(2 397/103 777),高于2019年的1.10%(1 355/12 2897),并且差异有统计学意义(χ^(2)=503.726,P<0.001)。② 2018和2019年工作列表无效运行率分别为2.35%(25/1 062)和1.34%(14/1 045),二者比较,差异无统计学意义(χ^(2)=2.983,P=0.084)。2018年有效工作列表中标本的无效检测率为0.20%(205/101 585),高于2019年的0.15%(187/121 729),并且差异有统计学意义(χ^(2)=7.336,P=0.006)。③ 2018和2019年工作列表无效运行原因构成比、有效工作列表中检测结果无效原因的构成比分别比较,差异均有统计学意义(χ^(2)=10.708、86.966,P=0.013、<0.001)。2018和2019年工作列表无效运行的主要原因均为校准物/质控品无效,其导致的无效运行工作列表数分别占88%(22/25)和50%(7/14)。2018年导致有效工作列表中检测结果无效的主要原因为标本容量验证失败(VVFS),占40.0%(82/205);而2019年则以磁力洗站液面感应错误(ML)为主,占50.8%(95/187)。结论Tigris系统的校准物、质控品无效和仪器故障问题是引起NAT结果无效的重要原因。对采供血机构Tigris系统NAT结果无效的原因进行分析、总结,有助于尽早发现导致NAT结果无效的原因,并及时采取相应的处理措施,从而减少无效NAT结果的产生,提高NAT的质量和效率。

Solving the Water Resource Problems in Iraq

Iraq covers an area of 437072 km2 in the northeastern part of the Middle East. Its population now is more than 40 million. It relies mainly on its water resources from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and their tributaries. Recently, Iraq has been experiencing a severe water scarcity problem. This is mainly due to climate change, increased hydrological projects in riparian countries, and water resources mismanagement inside Iraq itself. To overcome the problem, a new strategy should be implemented. Such strategy should consider two main courses of action: a) serious negotiations with riparian countries to reach an agreement giving Iraq equitable water shares from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and their tributaries. b) Prudent water management practices inside Iraq that consider adopting realistic distribution of water between the governorates, rational policies aiming at increased water use efficiencies within Irrigation networks, increased use of non-conventional sources of water, adjustment of water tariffs and their collection procedures, improving agricultural techniques, introduction of intensive guidance and public awareness programs, and promulgation of new legislations, in addition to creation of human resources development programs.

Social structure and space use of Amur tigers(Panthera tigris altaica)in Southern Russian Far East based on GPS telemetry data

To better understand the spatial structure of Amur tigers(Panthera tigris altaica)at the southern edge of their range we fitted 14 tigers(6♀♀and 8♂♂)with 15 GPS-Argos collars between 2008 and 2011 in 2 study sites:the Ussuriskii Reserve of southern Sikhote-Alin and the Land of the Leopard National Park in southwest Primorye,Russian Far East.Fixed kernel estimates of male home ranges were larger than those of female home ranges(P<0.05[mean 95%fixed kernel♀=401±205 km2;mean 95%fixed kernel♂=778±267 km2]).The home range size of females varied greatly,but on average was similar to estimates derived from earlier work further north.Low overlap of adjacent home ranges suggested that females retained exclusive territories.Real core areas of females overlapped only slightly,and remained stable over multiple years.The home ranges of adult males were smaller than those of males to the north,and in contrast to previous studies,high overlap among males indicated the absence of territoriality.Nonetheless,real core areas of males did not overlap,suggesting some spatial separation.In comparison to other tiger populations and other areas of the Russian Far East,the sex ratio in our 2 study areas was highly skewed towards males.We believe this skewed sex ratio resulted in the dissolution of territoriality of males due to an inability to defend individual females,with males resorting to scramble competition for mates.Continued monitoring of these sites to determine whether shifts in the sex ratio might result in a return to male territoriality would provide confirmation of our tentative hypothesis.