An Efficient Encryption and Compression of Sensed IoT Medical Images Using Auto-Encoder

Healthcare systems nowadays depend on IoT sensors for sending data over the internet as a common practice.Encryption ofmedical images is very important to secure patient information.Encrypting these images consumes a lot of time onedge computing;therefore,theuse of anauto-encoder for compressionbefore encodingwill solve such a problem.In this paper,we use an auto-encoder to compress amedical image before encryption,and an encryption output(vector)is sent out over the network.On the other hand,a decoder was used to reproduce the original image back after the vector was received and decrypted.Two convolutional neural networks were conducted to evaluate our proposed approach:The first one is the auto-encoder,which is utilized to compress and encrypt the images,and the other assesses the classification accuracy of the image after decryption and decoding.Different hyperparameters of the encoder were tested,followed by the classification of the image to verify that no critical information was lost,to test the encryption and encoding resolution.In this approach,sixteen hyperparameter permutations are utilized,but this research discusses three main cases in detail.The first case shows that the combination of Mean Square Logarithmic Error(MSLE),ADAgrad,two layers for the auto-encoder,and ReLU had the best auto-encoder results with a Mean Absolute Error(MAE)=0.221 after 50 epochs and 75%classification with the best result for the classification algorithm.The second case shows the reflection of auto-encoder results on the classification results which is a combination ofMean Square Error(MSE),RMSprop,three layers for the auto-encoder,and ReLU,which had the best classification accuracy of 65%,the auto-encoder gives MAE=0.31 after 50 epochs.The third case is the worst,which is the combination of the hinge,RMSprop,three layers for the auto-encoder,and ReLU,providing accuracy of 20%and MAE=0.485.

Deep Learning-Based Stacked Auto-Encoder with Dynamic Differential Annealed Optimization for Skin Lesion Diagnosis

Intelligent diagnosis approaches with shallow architectural models play an essential role in healthcare.Deep Learning(DL)models with unsupervised learning concepts have been proposed because high-quality feature extraction and adequate labelled details significantly influence shallow models.On the other hand,skin lesionbased segregation and disintegration procedures play an essential role in earlier skin cancer detection.However,artefacts,an unclear boundary,poor contrast,and different lesion sizes make detection difficult.To address the issues in skin lesion diagnosis,this study creates the UDLS-DDOA model,an intelligent Unsupervised Deep Learning-based Stacked Auto-encoder(UDLS)optimized by Dynamic Differential Annealed Optimization(DDOA).Pre-processing,segregation,feature removal or separation,and disintegration are part of the proposed skin lesion diagnosis model.Pre-processing of skin lesion images occurs at the initial level for noise removal in the image using the Top hat filter and painting methodology.Following that,a Fuzzy C-Means(FCM)segregation procedure is performed using a Quasi-Oppositional Elephant Herd Optimization(QOEHO)algorithm.Besides,a novel feature extraction technique using the UDLS technique is applied where the parameter tuning takes place using DDOA.In the end,the disintegration procedure would be accomplished using a SoftMax(SM)classifier.The UDLS-DDOA model is tested against the International Skin Imaging Collaboration(ISIC)dataset,and the experimental results are examined using various computational attributes.The simulation results demonstrated that the UDLS-DDOA model outperformed the compared methods significantly.

Method of Multi-Mode Sensor Data Fusion with an Adaptive Deep Coupling Convolutional Auto-Encoder

To address the difficulties in fusing multi-mode sensor data for complex industrial machinery, an adaptive deep coupling convolutional auto-encoder (ADCCAE) fusion method was proposed. First, the multi-mode features extracted synchronously by the CCAE were stacked and fed to the multi-channel convolution layers for fusion. Then, the fused data was passed to all connection layers for compression and fed to the Softmax module for classification. Finally, the coupling loss function coefficients and the network parameters were optimized through an adaptive approach using the gray wolf optimization (GWO) algorithm. Experimental comparisons showed that the proposed ADCCAE fusion model was superior to existing models for multi-mode data fusion.

A multi-scale convolutional auto-encoder and its application in fault diagnosis of rolling bearings

Aiming at the difficulty of fault identification caused by manual extraction of fault features of rotating machinery,a one-dimensional multi-scale convolutional auto-encoder fault diagnosis model is proposed,based on the standard convolutional auto-encoder.In this model,the parallel convolutional and deconvolutional kernels of different scales are used to extract the features from the input signal and reconstruct the input signal;then the feature map extracted by multi-scale convolutional kernels is used as the input of the classifier;and finally the parameters of the whole model are fine-tuned using labeled data.Experiments on one set of simulation fault data and two sets of rolling bearing fault data are conducted to validate the proposed method.The results show that the model can achieve 99.75%,99.3%and 100%diagnostic accuracy,respectively.In addition,the diagnostic accuracy and reconstruction error of the one-dimensional multi-scale convolutional auto-encoder are compared with traditional machine learning,convolutional neural networks and a traditional convolutional auto-encoder.The final results show that the proposed model has a better recognition effect for rolling bearing fault data.

Fault Diagnosis of Motor in Frequency Domain Signal by Stacked De-noising Auto-encoder

With the rapid development of mechanical equipment,mechanical health monitoring field has entered the era of big data.Deep learning has made a great achievement in the processing of large data of image and speech due to the powerful modeling capabilities,this also brings influence to the mechanical fault diagnosis field.Therefore,according to the characteristics of motor vibration signals(nonstationary and difficult to deal with)and mechanical‘big data’,combined with deep learning,a motor fault diagnosis method based on stacked de-noising auto-encoder is proposed.The frequency domain signals obtained by the Fourier transform are used as input to the network.This method can extract features adaptively and unsupervised,and get rid of the dependence of traditional machine learning methods on human extraction features.A supervised fine tuning of the model is then carried out by backpropagation.The Asynchronous motor in Drivetrain Dynamics Simulator system was taken as the research object,the effectiveness of the proposed method was verified by a large number of data,and research on visualization of network output,the results shown that the SDAE method is more efficient and more intelligent.

Outlier Detection for Water Supply Data Based on Joint Auto-Encoder

With the development of science and technology,the status of the water environment has received more and more attention.In this paper,we propose a deep learning model,named a Joint Auto-Encoder network,to solve the problem of outlier detection in water supply data.The Joint Auto-Encoder network first expands the size of training data and extracts the useful features from the input data,and then reconstructs the input data effectively into an output.The outliers are detected based on the network’s reconstruction errors,with a larger reconstruction error indicating a higher rate to be an outlier.For water supply data,there are mainly two types of outliers:outliers with large values and those with values closed to zero.We set two separate thresholds,and,for the reconstruction errors to detect the two types of outliers respectively.The data samples with reconstruction errors exceeding the thresholds are voted to be outliers.The two thresholds can be calculated by the classification confusion matrix and the receiver operating characteristic(ROC)curve.We have also performed comparisons between the Joint Auto-Encoder and the vanilla Auto-Encoder in this paper on both the synthesis data set and the MNIST data set.As a result,our model has proved to outperform the vanilla Auto-Encoder and some other outlier detection approaches with the recall rate of 98.94 percent in water supply data.

Application of Improved Deep Auto-Encoder Network in Rolling Bearing Fault Diagnosis

Since the effectiveness of extracting fault features is not high under traditional bearing fault diagnosis method, a bearing fault diagnosis method based on Deep Auto-encoder Network (DAEN) optimized by Cloud Adaptive Particle Swarm Optimization (CAPSO) was proposed. On the basis of analyzing CAPSO and DAEN, the CAPSO-DAEN fault diagnosis model is built. The model uses the randomness and stability of CAPSO algorithm to optimize the connection weight of DAEN, to reduce the constraints on the weights and extract fault features adaptively. Finally, efficient and accurate fault diagnosis can be implemented with the Softmax classifier. The results of test show that the proposed method has higher diagnostic accuracy and more stable diagnosis results than those based on the DAEN, Support Vector Machine (SVM) and the Back Propagation algorithm (BP) under appropriate parameters.

Fault Diagnosis for Rolling Bearings with Stacked Denoising Auto-encoder of Information Aggregation

Rolling bearings are important central components in rotating machines, whose fault diagnosis is crucial in condition-based maintenance to reduce the complexity of different kinds of faults. To classify various rolling bearing faults, a prognostic algorithm consisting of four phases was proposed. Since stacked denoising auto-encoder can be filtered, noise of large numbers of mechanical vibration signals was used for deep learning structure to extract the characteristics of the noise. Unsupervised pre-training method, which can greatly simplify the traditional manual extraction approach, was utilized to process the depth of the data automatically. Furthermore, the aggregation layer of stacked denoising auto-encoder(SDA) was proposed to get rid of gradient disappearance in deeper layers of network, mix superficial nodes’ expression with deeper layers, and avoid the insufficient express ability in deeper layers. Principal component analysis(PCA) was adopted to extract different features for classification. According to the experimental data of this method and from the comparison results, the proposed method of rolling bearing fault classification reached 97.02% of correct rate, suggesting a better performance than other algorithms.

Transfer learning with deep sparse auto-encoder for speech emotion recognition

In order to improve the efficiency of speech emotion recognition across corpora,a speech emotion transfer learning method based on the deep sparse auto-encoder is proposed.The algorithm first reconstructs a small amount of data in the target domain by training the deep sparse auto-encoder,so that the encoder can learn the low-dimensional structural representation of the target domain data.Then,the source domain data and the target domain data are coded by the trained deep sparse auto-encoder to obtain the reconstruction data of the low-dimensional structural representation close to the target domain.Finally,a part of the reconstructed tagged target domain data is mixed with the reconstructed source domain data to jointly train the classifier.This part of the target domain data is used to guide the source domain data.Experiments on the CASIA,SoutheastLab corpus show that the model recognition rate after a small amount of data transferred reached 89.2%and 72.4%on the DNN.Compared to the training results of the complete original corpus,it only decreased by 2%in the CASIA corpus,and only 3.4%in the SoutheastLab corpus.Experiments show that the algorithm can achieve the effect of labeling all data in the extreme case that the data set has only a small amount of data tagged.

SNP site-drug association prediction algorithm based on denoising variational auto-encoder

Single nucletide polymorphism(SNP)is an important factor for the study of genetic variation in human families and animal and plant strains.Therefore,it is widely used in the study of population genetics and disease related gene.In pharmacogenomics research,identifying the association between SNP site and drug is the key to clinical precision medication,therefore,a predictive model of SNP site and drug association based on denoising variational auto-encoder(DVAE-SVM)is proposed.Firstly,k-mer algorithm is used to construct the initial SNP site feature vector,meanwhile,MACCS molecular fingerprint is introduced to generate the feature vector of the drug module.Then,we use the DVAE to extract the effective features of the initial feature vector of the SNP site.Finally,the effective feature vector of the SNP site and the feature vector of the drug module are fused input to the support vector machines(SVM)to predict the relationship of SNP site and drug module.The results of five-fold cross-validation experiments indicate that the proposed algorithm performs better than random forest(RF)and logistic regression(LR)classification.Further experiments show that compared with the feature extraction algorithms of principal component analysis(PCA),denoising auto-encoder(DAE)and variational auto-encode(VAE),the proposed algorithm has better prediction results.

Predicting the Antigenic Variant of Human Influenza A(H3N2) Virus with a Stacked Auto-Encoder Model

The influenza virus changes its antigenicity frequently due to rapid mutations, leading to immune escape and failure of vaccination. Rapid determination of the influenza antigenicity could help identify the antigenic variants in time. Here, we built a stacked auto-encoder (SAE) model for predicting the antigenic variant of human influenza A(H3N2) viruses based on the hemagglutinin (HA) protein sequences. The model achieved an accuracy of 0.95 in five-fold cross-validations, better than the logistic regression model did. Further analysis of the model shows that most of the active nodes in the hidden layer reflected the combined contribution of multiple residues to antigenic variation. Besides, some features (residues on HA protein) in the input layer were observed to take part in multiple active nodes, such as residue 189, 145 and 156, which were also reported to mostly determine the antigenic variation of influenza A(H3N2) viruses. Overall,this work is not only useful for rapidly identifying antigenic variants in influenza prevention, but also an interesting attempt in inferring the mechanisms of biological process through analysis of SAE model, which may give some insights into interpretation of the deep learning

Intrusion Detection through DCSYS Propagation Compared to Auto-encoders

In network settings,one of the major disadvantages that threaten the network protocols is the insecurity.In most cases,unscrupulous people or bad actors can access information through unsecured connections by planting software or what we call malicious software otherwise anomalies.The presence of anomalies is also one of the disadvantages,internet users are constantly plagued by virus on their system and get activated when a harmless link is clicked on,this a case of true benign detected as false.Deep learning is very adept at dealing with such cases,but sometimes it has its own faults when dealing benign cases.Here we tend to adopt a dynamic control system(DCSYS)that addresses data packets based on benign scenario to truly report on false benign and exclude anomalies.Its performance is compared with artificial neural network auto-encoders to define its predictive power.Results show that though physical systems can adapt securely,it can be used for network data packets to identify true benign cases.

Exploring Variational Auto-encoder Architectures, Configurations, and Datasets for Generative Music Explainable AI

Generative AI models for music and the arts in general are increasingly complex and hard to understand.The field of ex-plainable AI(XAI)seeks to make complex and opaque AI models such as neural networks more understandable to people.One ap-proach to making generative AI models more understandable is to impose a small number of semantically meaningful attributes on gen-erative AI models.This paper contributes a systematic examination of the impact that different combinations of variational auto-en-coder models(measureVAE and adversarialVAE),configurations of latent space in the AI model(from 4 to 256 latent dimensions),and training datasets(Irish folk,Turkish folk,classical,and pop)have on music generation performance when 2 or 4 meaningful musical at-tributes are imposed on the generative model.To date,there have been no systematic comparisons of such models at this level of com-binatorial detail.Our findings show that measureVAE has better reconstruction performance than adversarialVAE which has better musical attribute independence.Results demonstrate that measureVAE was able to generate music across music genres with inter-pretable musical dimensions of control,and performs best with low complexity music such as pop and rock.We recommend that a 32 or 64 latent dimensional space is optimal for 4 regularised dimensions when using measureVAE to generate music across genres.Our res-ults are the first detailed comparisons of configurations of state-of-the-art generative AI models for music and can be used to help select and configure AI models,musical features,and datasets for more understandable generation of music.

Feature-aided pose estimation approach based on variational auto-encoder structure for spacecrafts

Real-time 6 Degree-of-Freedom(DoF)pose estimation is of paramount importance for various on-orbit tasks.Benefiting from the development of deep learning,Convolutional Neural Networks(CNNs)in feature extraction has yielded impressive achievements for spacecraft pose estimation.To improve the robustness and interpretability of CNNs,this paper proposes a Pose Estimation approach based on Variational Auto-Encoder structure(PE-VAE)and a Feature-Aided pose estimation approach based on Variational Auto-Encoder structure(FA-VAE),which aim to accurately estimate the 6 DoF pose of a target spacecraft.Both methods treat the pose vector as latent variables,employing an encoder-decoder network with a Variational Auto-Encoder(VAE)structure.To enhance the precision of pose estimation,PE-VAE uses the VAE structure to introduce reconstruction mechanism with the whole image.Furthermore,FA-VAE enforces feature shape constraints by exclusively reconstructing the segment of the target spacecraft with the desired shape.Comparative evaluation against leading methods on public datasets reveals similar accuracy with a threefold improvement in processing speed,showcasing the significant contribution of VAE structures to accuracy enhancement,and the additional benefit of incorporating global shape prior features.

A novel deep learning framework with variational auto-encoder for indoor air quality prediction

Exposure to poor indoor air conditions poses significant risks to human health, increasing morbidity and mortality rates. Soft measurement modeling is suitable for stable and accurate monitoring of air pollutants and improving air quality. Based on partial least squares (PLS), we propose an indoor air quality prediction model that utilizes variational auto-encoder regression (VAER) algorithm. To reduce the negative effects of noise, latent variables in the original data are extracted by PLS in the first step. Then, the extracted variables are used as inputs to VAER, which improve the accuracy and robustness of the model. Through comparative analysis with traditional methods, we demonstrate the superior performance of our PLS-VAER model, which exhibits improved prediction performance and stability. The root mean square error (RMSE) of PLS-VAER is reduced by 14.71%, 26.47%, and 12.50% compared to single VAER, PLS-SVR, and PLS-ANN, respectively. Additionally, the coefficient of determination (R2) of PLS-VAER improves by 13.70%, 30.09%, and 11.25% compared to single VAER, PLS-SVR, and PLS-ANN, respectively. This research offers an innovative and environmentally-friendly approach to monitor and improve indoor air quality.

A comparative evaluation of Stacked Auto-Encoder neural network and Multi-Layer Extreme Learning Machine for detection and classification of faults in transmission lines using WAMS data

Smart grid is envisaged as a power grid that is extremely reliable and flexible.The electrical grid has wide-area measuring devices like Phasor measurement units(PMUs)deployed to provide real-time grid information and resolve issues effectively and speedily without compromising system availability.The development and application of machine learning approaches for power system protection and state estimation have been facilitated by the availability of measurement data.This research proposes a transmission line fault detection and classification(FD&C)system based on an auto-encoder neural network.A comparison between a Multi-Layer Extreme Learning Machine(ML-ELM)network model and a Stacked Auto-Encoder neural network(SAE)is made.Additionally,the performance of the models developed is compared to that of state-of-the-art classifier models employing feature datasets acquired by wavelet transform based feature extraction as well as other deep learning models.With substantially shorter testing time,the suggested auto-encoder models detect faults with 100% accuracy and classify faults with 99.92% and 99.79%accuracy.The computational efficiency of the ML-ELM model is demonstrated with high accuracy of classification with training time and testing time less than 50 ms.To emulate real system scenarios the models are developed with datasets with noise with signal-to-noise-ratio(SNR)ranging from 10 dB to 40 dB.The efficacy of the models is demonstrated with data from the IEEE 39 bus test system.

Bi-GAE:A Bidirectional Generative Auto-Encoder

Improving the generative and representational capabilities of auto-encoders is a hot research topic. However, it is a challenge to jointly and simultaneously optimize the bidirectional mapping between the encoder and the decoder/generator while ensuing convergence. Most existing auto-encoders cannot automatically trade off bidirectional mapping. In this work, we propose Bi-GAE, an unsupervised bidirectional generative auto-encoder based on bidirectional generative adversarial network (BiGAN). First, we introduce two terms that enhance information expansion in decoding to follow human visual models and to improve semantic-relevant feature representation capability in encoding. Furthermore, we embed a generative adversarial network (GAN) to improve representation while ensuring convergence. The experimental results show that Bi-GAE achieves competitive results in both generation and representation with stable convergence. Compared with its counterparts, the representational power of Bi-GAE improves the classification accuracy of high-resolution images by about 8.09%. In addition, Bi-GAE increases structural similarity index measure (SSIM) by 0.045, and decreases Fréchet inception distance (FID) by in the reconstruction of 512*512 images.

Subspace clustering via graph auto-encoder network for unknown encrypted traffc recognition

The traffic encryption brings new challenges to the identification of unknown encrypted traffc.Currently,machine learning is the most commonly used encrypted traffic recognization technology,but this method relies on expensive prior label information.Therefore,we propose a subspace clustering via graph auto-encoder network(SCGAE)to recognize unknown applications without prior label information.The SCGAE adopts a graph encoder-decoder structure,which can comprehensively utilize the feature and structure information to extract discriminative embedding representation.Additionally,the self-supervised module is introduced,which use the clustering labels acts as a supervisor to guide the learning of the graph encoder-decoder module.Finally,we obtain the self-expression coefficient matrix through the self-expression module and map it to the subspace for clustering.The results show that SCGAE has better performance than all benchmark models in unknown encrypted traffic recognization.

A New Method for Sentiment Analysis Using Contextual Auto-Encoders

Sentiment analysis, a hot research topic, presents new challenges for understanding users＇ opinions and judg-ments expressed online. They aim to classify the subjective texts by assigning them a polarity label. In this paper, weintroduce a novel machine learning framework using auto-encoders network to predict the sentiment polarity label at theword level and the sentence level. Inspired by the dimensionality reduction and the feature extraction capabilities of theauto-encoders, we propose a new model for distributed word vector representation ＂PMI-SA＂ using as input pointwise-mutual-information ＂PMI＂ word vectors. The resulted continuous word vectors are combined to represent a sentence. Anunsupervised sentence embedding method, called Contextual Recursive Auto-Encoders ＂CoRAE＂, is also developed forlearning sentence representation. Indeed, CoRAE follows the basic idea of the recursive auto-encoders to deeply composethe vectors of words constituting the sentence, but without relying on any syntactic parse tree. The CoRAE model consistsin combining recursively each word with its context words （neighbors＇ words： previous and next） by considering the wordorder. A support vector machine classifier with fine-tuning technique is also used to show that our deep compositionalrepresentation model CoRAE improves significantly the accuracy of sentiment analysis task. Experimental results demon-strate that CoRAE remarkably outperforms several competitive baseline methods on two databases, namely, Sanders twittercorpus and Facebook comments corpus. The CoRAE model achieves an efficiency of 83.28% with the Facebook dataset and97.57% with the Sanders dataset.

A Novel Deep Hybrid Recommender System Based on Auto-encoder with Neural Collaborative Filtering

Due to the widespread availability of implicit feedback(e.g., clicks and purchases), some researchers have endeavored to design recommender systems based on implicit feedback. However, unlike explicit feedback,implicit feedback cannot directly reflect user preferences. Therefore, although more challenging, it is also more practical to use implicit feedback for recommender systems. Traditional collaborative filtering methods such as matrix factorization, which regards user preferences as a linear combination of user and item latent vectors, have limited learning capacities and suffer from data sparsity and the cold-start problem. To tackle these problems,some authors have considered the integration of a deep neural network to learn user and item features with traditional collaborative filtering. However, there is as yet no research combining collaborative filtering and contentbased recommendation with deep learning. In this paper, we propose a novel deep hybrid recommender system framework based on auto-encoders(DHA-RS) by integrating user and item side information to construct a hybrid recommender system and enhance performance. DHA-RS combines stacked denoising auto-encoders with neural collaborative filtering, which corresponds to the process of learning user and item features from auxiliary information to predict user preferences. Experiments performed on the real-world dataset reveal that DHA-RS performs better than state-of-the-art methods.