Baseflow:Potential Pathway Underlying a High Nitrogen Concentra-tion in a Less-rainy WatershedTaking Chaohe River Basin of China as an Example

Baseflow is one of the major pathways of runoff in hilly areas,and its contributions to surface water resources and pollutant loads cannot be ignored.In this study,based on water quantity and quality data from 1988 to 2019 in hilly and low rainfall watersheds,we focused on the impact of long-term baseflow on nitrogen load using the load allocation based on the baseflow separation method.We also constructed a nitrogen balance model for the Chaohe River Basin of China from 2012 to 2021 to analyze the nitrogen accumulation in the basin.We used the baseflow nitrogen load lag analysis method to study the lag characteristics of the baseflow discharge process and analyzed the response and periodicity of baseflow nitrogen to precipitation and soil accumulation using time delay analysis.The res-ults showed that the contribution rate of baseflow nitrogen reached 69%and showed a slight increasing trend from 1988 to 2019.The ef-fects of changes in precipitation and nitrogen accumulation on the baseflow contribution was observed after 1-2 and 2 yr,respectively.After nitrogen accumulation,it entered the river channel through baseflow,which was already the main and continuous source of nitro-gen in rivers in hilly areas.

Use of Groundwater, Baseflow and SPEI to Evaluate Water Resources in Michigan, USA

Precipitation and evaporation are commonly used to assess and forecast droughts. However, surface and groundwater respond to both land surface processes, land use, and climatic variables, and should be integrated into water management decisions. Water trend analysis near the Great Lakes is limited due to fluctuating cycles and data scarcity. In this study, we examine daily discharge data from 46 surface water gauges with high baseflow contributions and groundwater elevation from 28 observation wells in Michigan. Using established hydrograph separation techniques, we determined baseflow and standardized both annual average baseflow levels (SDBF) and groundwater levels (SDGW) from 1960 to 2022. These results are compared to the widely used Standardized Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI). SPEI is a widely used drought indicator that integrates both precipitation and potential evapotranspiration, offering a more comprehensive measure of water balance. While the SPEI suggests that Michigan is becoming wetter, the SDBF shows a mix of both wet and dry conditions. Interpreting SDGW is more challenging due to incomplete records, but it indicates varying groundwater stability across the state. In some areas, SDGW mirrors the trends seen in SDBF, while in others, it takes 3 to 4 years for groundwater levels to reflect the same changes observed in baseflow. Overall, SDBF provides a better understanding of surface processes and responses to changing climatic variables.

Baseflow variations and its causes in a subtropical watershed of southern China

Baseflow is an essential component of streamflow and plays a crucial role in maintaining the stability of streamflow.However,few quantitative studies have identified the effects of leading factors on baseflow variation at the small watershed scale,especially in subtropical China.In this study,the small watershed(Pengchongjian watershed,2.90 km2),located in Southern China,was considered to explore the quantitative impact of precipitation,evapotranspiration,temperature,and vegetation restoration on baseflow.The digital filter method was used to separate baseflow by daily streamflow records from 1983 to 2014.The stepwise regression models were developed for selecting significant influencing factors of baseflow at seasonal and annual scales.The direct and indirect effects,as well as their quantitative relationships between baseflow and multiple factors,were clarified by the path analysis.The results showed that filtered average annual baseflow significantly decreased(p<0.05),ranging from 72.82 to 305.85 mm,and the average yearly baseflow index was 0.22.In addition,various significant influencing factors of baseflow had different direct and indirect effects on baseflow at seasonal and annual scales.The precipitation was the dominant factor with respect to the direct impact,which directs path coefficient was 0.891 in spring,0.823 in summer,1.599 in autumn,1.332 in winter,and 0.917 in an annual scale,respectively.In terms of the indirect effects,evapotranspiration played a leading role during the spring,autumn,winter,and annual scale,whereas the average temperature was the dominant factor during the summer.Overall,results demonstrated that the baseflow variation was mainly attributed to climate change.The present works are beneficial for revealing the internal mechanism of the baseflow variations in the study area,and it can provide a scientific basis for managing water resources in the watershed.

Periodical characteristics of baseflow in the source region of the Yangtze River

Baseflow, which represents the drainage of groundwater aquifers, is an essential component of runoff in hydrological basins. In the source region of the Yangtze River, the change of baseflow typically reflects the in- teractions between groundwater system and climatic factors in cold and arid areas. With modified Kalinen separa- tion method, annual baseflow between 1957 and 2009 in this region was estimated and calculated. In comparison with the inner-annual variations of total streamflow, baseflow showed a weaker fluctuation. Before the 1980s, it was in a steady state; and after then, it demonstrated dramatic variations and large amplitudes. Based on the calculation results of baseflow, the real Morlet wavelet method was applied to reveal the periodical characteristics of baseflow as well as the precipitation and air temperature in the study area. It was found that annual baseflow has a 43-year trend as well as a 21-year period and a 7-year period. The 21-year period is most significant, with its wavelet coef- ficient having the largest fluctuation and amplitude. Summation of wavelet coefficients on these periods exhibits a similar change pattern with respect to that of annual baseflow. The summation curve takes a ＂W＂ shape, which means that the baseflow follows a four-stage sequence of descending-ascending-descending-ascending. As analyzed, the relationship among baseflow, precipitation and temperature is implied in the correlation between their normalized wavelet coefficients at different temporal scales. By the significant positive linear correlations both be- tween precipitation and baseflow （correlation coefficient is 0.98） and between temperature and baseflow （correla- tion coefficient is 0.90） for the 43-year wavelet coefficients, it is suggested that the long-term increasing trends of precipitation and air temperature will lead to an increasing trend of baseflow. For wavelet coefficients of 21-year and 7-year periods, the positive linear correlation between precipitation and baseflow is significant. However, the cor- relation between air temperature and baseflow is not so evident, especially for the 21-year period. As a conclusion, correlation analysis with normalized wavelet coefficients showed that the change of annual baseflow was contrib- uted mostly by the change of precipitation and secondly by the change of temperature.

Baseflow Separation and Its Response to Meteorological Drought in a Temperate Water-limited Basin,North China

Baseflow,a component of the total streamflow,plays a key role in maintaining aquatic habitats,particularly during extreme drought events.This study investigated baseflow response to a prolonged and extreme meteorological drought event in the Baiyangdian Basin(BYD basin),a temperate water-limited basin in North China.Applying a precipitation series,piecewise regression was used to determine this extreme meteorological drought event,while the Automatic Baseflow Identification Technique(ABIT)was used to estimate a recession parameter(α),which was used to isolate baseflow from total streamflow.Results showed that:1)annual precipitation exhibited significant decreasing trends(P<0.05)with an average change of–1.81 mm/yr^(2).The precipitation deficit revealed that the start and end date of the extreme meteorological drought event was from August 1996 to May 2011,respectively,persisting for a total of 178 months(roughly 15 yr);2)hydrological drought(including streamflow and baseflow)lagged behind meteorological drought while predictably persisting longer than extreme meteorological drought(i.e.,precipitation);and 3)baseflow decreased dramatically under meteorological drought at both seasonal and annual scales,resulting in significantly decreasing trends during drought periods.Findings from this study confirmed that hydrological events caused by extreme meteorological drought can alter the magnitude and duration of baseflow and total streamflow,which will have an inevitable influence on aquatic ecosystems.

Baseflow Characteristics in Alpine Rivers-a Multicatchment Analysis in Northwest China

As a component of streamflow, baseflow is critical for regulating seasonal distribution of river fows and stabilizing water supplies. Water resources in the arid area of Northwest China are mainly from multiple catchments in the alpine that could be influenced by varieties of climatic, land cover, soil and geological factors. While numerous studies have been done on streamflow, systematic analysis of baseflow in the alpine river systems is scare. Based on historical daily streamflow data and the automated digital filter method of baseflow separation, this study investigated characteristics of hydrographs of overland flow, streamflow and baseflowof river systems fed by rainfall, snowmelt, glacier melt or mixtures of these. This study also calculated the recession constants and baseflow indices of 65 river systems. While the recession constant was o.oo34- o.o728 with a mean of o.o18, the baseflow index was 0.27-0.79 with a mean of 0.57. Further, Spearman＇s correlation analysis showed that the baseflow index was significantly correlated with catchment climatic factors （e.g., precipitation and temperature）, topographic factors （e.g., elevation and slope） and aquifer properties represented by the recession constant. Multiple regression analysis indicated that the factors explained 65% of the variability of baseflow index in the studv area.

On Redefining the Onset of Baseflow Recession on Storm Hydrographs

Two methods that define the point of baseflow recession onset were compared using storm hydrograph data for 27 storm events that occurred between 1982-1995 in the Upeo watershed located in the Andes mountain range in central Chile (Figure 1). Three well-known baseflow recession equations were used to determine whether the method we are proposing here, that defines baseflow recession onset as the third inflection point on the logarithmic graph of the falling limb of the storm hydrograph, more accurately models observed data than the most widely used method that defines baseflow onset as the second inflection point on the same graph. Five time intervals were used to modify the recession coefficient in search of a more accurate fit. Results from the coefficient of determination, standard error, Mann-Whitney U test, and Bland-Altman test suggest that redefining baseflow recession onset via the proposed approach more accurately models baseflow recession behavior.

Standardized Baseflow Drought Index Comparison to SPEI in High Baseflow Streams

Increased use of streamflow, most importantly minimum flow/baseflow data should be incorporated into drought indices, especially in regions where streams have a high baseflow component. Standard departure for streamflow (SDSF) and standard departure for baseflow (SDBF) were compared to the standardized precipitation and evapotranspiration index (SPEI) drought index values for 17 baseflow-dominated watersheds in the northern, central, and southern regions of Wisconsin. For each watershed, comparisons of SDSF, SDBF, and SPEI time series (for 1, 3, and 12-month time scales) were evaluated using correlation, run lengths of negative and positive values, sign congruence, and Mann-Kendall trend test. In general, SDBF performed better than SDSF for longer time scales. Trends of wetness appear to be distinguished earlier in SDBF compared to SDSF and SPEI-1, SPEI-3, and SPEI-12. The results of this study are consistent with regional statewide climate studies on precipitation and changes in precipitation intensity. This study highlights how standardized baseflow data are robust and compare to SPEI 12-month time scales.

Contribution of baseflow nitrate export to non-point source pollution

As a common pollutant of nitrogen in groundwater, nitrate contamination has become a major concern worldwide. Baseflow, one of the dominant hydrological pathways for nitrate migration to streamflow, has been confirmed as a leading nitrate source for stream water where groundwater or subsurface flow contaminated heavily by nitrate. That is, sufficient improvements of water quality may not be attained without proper management for baseflow, even if non-point sources(NPS) pollutants discharged through surface runoff are being well managed. This article reviews the primary nitrate sources, the main factors affecting its transport, and the methodologies for baseflow nitrate estimation, to give some recommendations for future works, including:(1) giving sufficient consideration for the effects of climatological, morphological, and geological factors on baseflow recessions to obtain more reliable and accurate baseflow separation;(2) trying to solve calibration and validation problems for baseflow loads determining in storm flow period;(3) developing a simple and convenient algorithm with certain physics that can be used to separate baseflow NPS pollution from the total directly in different regions, for a reliable estimation of baseflow NPS pollution at larger scale(e.g., national scale);(4) improving groundwater quality simulation module of existing NPS pollution models to have a better simulation for biogeochemical processes in shallow aquifers;(5) taking integrated measures of "source control", "process interception" and "end remediation" to prevent and control NPS nitrate pollution effectively, not just only the strict control of nutrients loss from surface runoff.

An optimized baseflow separation method for assessment of seasonal and spatial variability of baseflow and the driving factors

Baseflow is an important component of river or streamflow.It plays a vital role in water utilization and management.An improved Eckhardt recursive digital filter(IERDF)is proposed in this study.The key filter parameter and maximum baseflow index(BFImax)were estimated using the minimum smoothing method to improve baseflow estimation accuracy.The generally considered BFImax of 0.80,0.50 and 0.25 according to the drainage basin’s predominant geological characteristics often leads to significant errors in the regions that have complex subsurface and hydrologic conditions.The IERDF improved baseflow estimation accuracy by avoiding arbitrary parameter values.The proposed method was applied for baseflow separation in the upstream of Yitong River,a tributary of the Second Songhua River,and its performance was evaluated by comparing the results obtained using isotope-tracer data.The performance of IERDF was also compared with nine baseflow separation techniques belonging to filter,BFI and HYSEP methods.The IERDF was also applied for baseflow separation and calculation of rainfall infiltration recharge coefficient at different locations along the Second Songhua River’s mainstream for the period 2000–2016.The results showed that the minimum smoothing method significantly improved BFImax estimation accuracy.The baseflow process line obtained using IEDRF method was consistent with that obtained using isotope 18 O.The IERDF estimated baseflow also showed stability and reliability when applied in the mainstream of the Second Songhua River.The BFI alone in the river showed an increase from the upstream to the downstream.The proportion of baseflow to total flow showed a decrease with time.The intra-annual variability of BFI was different at different locations of the river due to varying climatic conditions and subsurface characteristics.The highest BFI was observed at the middle reaches of the river in summer due to a water surplus from power generation.The research provided valuable information on baseflow characteristics and runoff mode determination,which can be used for water resources assessment and optimization of economic activity distribution in the region.

植被恢复和气候变化对汾河源区径流及其组分的影响

近年来,黄河中游许多流域径流量呈现减少的趋势,这与区域大规模的植被恢复密切相关。但是,汾河源区径流量却呈现了增加的相反趋势,有关变化环境对该区域径流及其组分的影响机制尚不明晰。因此,研究选取汾河源区北石河流域为研究区域,利用9种数值模拟法对1962—2018年河川径流进行分割并分析其适用性,采用Mann-Kendall检验法和累积距平法对径流、地表径流及基流进行了趋势分析和突变检验,评价了植被恢复和气候变化对径流及其组分的影响。结果表明:(1)在9种数值模拟法中,Lyne-Hollick滤波法的估算精度相对较高,其日基流过程线能较好地反映基流的滞后性和稳定性,因此更适用于研究区的基流估算;(2)流域多年平均径流深、地表径流深、基流深和基流指数分别为181.2 mm、67.4 mm、113.8 mm和0.68,基流是径流的主要组成部分。流域年径流和年地表径流均呈现不显著的增加趋势,而年基流呈现显著的增加趋势,基流的增加是径流变化的主要直接原因,三者的突变时间均出现在1994年左右;(3)降水的变化引起了径流、地表径流及基流的增加,降水增加是径流变化的主导因素(贡献率为78.1%—79.4%),而植被恢复引起了径流和基流的增加以及地表径流的减少,其主要原因在于植被恢复能够促进降水入渗,减少地表径流,同时北石河流域的土壤和地貌条件使增加的降水入渗量更多地形成了基流,植被恢复的基流增加效应超过了地表径流减少效应,从而最终增加了径流总量。研究结果可为汾河源区植被合理恢复及水资源可持续利用提供科学依据。

秃尾河流域河川径流组分变化及归因分析

[目的]探究秃尾河流域河川径流组分和基流指数(BFI)的变化特征,阐明环境因子对其变化的影响,识别主导因子,为流域水资源管理提供科学依据。[方法]以黄河中游的秃尾河流域为研究区,分析了1958—2017年流域地表径流、基流和基流指数(BFI)的变化,并通过相关性分析、弹性系数等方法定性定量分析了环境因子对它们的影响。[结果]地表径流和基流分别以4.55,9.73 mm/10 a的速度显著下降(p<0.01),BFI呈显著上升趋势(p<0.05)。地表径流(或基流、BFI)对潜在蒸散发、归一化植被指数(NDVI)和土壤含水量的变化高度敏感。NDVI和潜在蒸散发是导致地表径流(-34%,-29%)、基流(-39%,-29%)和BFI(33%,31%)变化的主要原因。[结论]植被恢复的直接及潜在水文效应对于河川径流组分减少发挥着重要作用。河川径流组分变化及其与环境变化之间的关系可为水资源和植被的可持续性提供理论依据。

黄土高原典型流域基流变化规律及贡献率分析

[目的]为探究气候变化和人类活动对基流变化的影响。[方法]选择黄土高原地区的4个典型流域无定河、窟野河、延河和秃尾河作为研究对象。基于1965-2017年无定河、窟野河和延河及1983-2017年秃尾河逐日流量和多站点气象资料,分析9种基流分割方法的适用性和基流变化特征。基于Budyko理论,采用弹性系数法,量化气候变化和人类活动对基流变化的贡献率。[结果]数字滤波法F4分割结果在稳定性、离散程度和误差方面表现较好,在黄土高原地区典型流域中最为适用。4个流域年基流深、年径流深和年基流指数的变化趋势有较高的一致性,无定河、窟野河、延河和秃尾河流域多年平均基流指数BFI分别为0.64,0.42,0.28和0.49,年基流深和年径流深均呈显著减小趋势(p<0.01),而年基流指数均为增加趋势。降水、潜在蒸散发和人类活动对黄土高原地区典型流域基流变化贡献率范围分别是-56.72%~33.92%,-0.81%~55.16%和10.92%~104.37%。[结论]人类活动是影响黄土高原地区基流演变的主要因素,研究结果为黄土高原地区水资源综合管理提供理论支持。

大兴安岭盘古河流域基流分割及特征分析

基流在水文过程中起重要的作用,不同流域基流所占的比例不同,选择科学合理的基流分割方法,获得较准确的基流量,对于保证流域的生态水量至关重要。根据盘古河流域盘古站1988—2015年日径流资料,采用基流指数法、时间步长法和数字滤波法3大类7种方法,并结合流域退水常数进行基流分割研究。利用Nash-Sutcliffe效率系数,同时采用平均相对误差(MRE)评估不同基流分割方法的计算结果精度。结果表明:7种方法均能实现基流过程的分割,但不同方法的分割结果存在一定差异;数字滤波法F2计算得到的基流分割过程线最稳定,Nash-Sutcliffe效率系数最高(0.851),平均相对误差最小(7.992%),是盘古河流域较为适宜的基流分割方法;年内基流指数总体呈现出先减后增的趋势,在融雪期持续减小,在生长季呈现上升趋势,强降雨之后则先减后增。

结合退水曲线和长短期记忆网络的中长期低流量预报

【目的】长短期记忆网络(LSTM)在水文预报研究中显示出较强的预报能力,但通常依赖于大量数据的训练。为使LSTM模型更好的适用于数据量较少的流域。【方法】研究采用退水曲线,对LSTM模型施加物理约束,提出了适用于低流量预报的混合模型。【结果】在中国西南不同地区3个流域的应用表明:(1)随着预见期的增长,混合模型预报结果的合格率有轻微下降,预见期10 d以内准确率可达到90%以上;(2)混合模型的预报精度显著高于LSTM,且能够显著降低误差累积效应的影响;(3)混合模型在减少训练样本数和减少预报因子维数的情况下均优于LSTM模型。【结论】结果表明,引入退水曲线可以降低混合模型对训练数据量的要求,有效延长预见期,对深度学习预报低流量提供了新的改进思路,并可以为抗旱方案设计等提供技术支持。

面向生态基流的滹沱河流域水资源配置研究

为解决黄壁庄以下滹沱河生态基流问题,缓解滹沱河流域各用水户之间的矛盾,以滹沱河流域河北段为研究对象,通过概化生态基流虚拟单元,优化生态基流供水顺序,构建区域精细化水资源配置(GWAS)模型,开展滹沱河流域河北段基准年(2020年)及规划年(2025年)在平、枯、特枯情境下的水资源配置研究。结果表明:基准年和规划年的生活、生态及工业用水基本得到满足,但农业需水却始终存在一个缺口,其中基准年在平水年综合缺水率为5.48%,枯水年综合缺水率为10.80%,特枯年综合缺水率为13.37%;规划年在平水年综合缺水率为8.15%,枯水年综合缺水率为13.15%,特枯年综合缺水率为17.24%。在不同水平年,农业缺水现象普遍存在,但基本上可满足区域的可持续发展要求。研究成果可为水资源本底较差区域的水资源配置及河道生态基流量的保障提供一定的参考。

基流分割法在黄河流域地下水研究中的应用

为研究黄河流域地下水可再生能力变化规律和制定黄河流域水资源管理方案,应用基流指数法（BFI）和直线平割法的原理与方法,计算了黄河流域干流13个水文断面与20条主要支流31个水文断面的基流量,并分析了基流量的形成机理、地下水对黄河水的贡献、基流变化过程、流域地下水资源的构成及地下水资源总量。研究结果表明：花园口断面的基流量占多年平均径流量的44%,流域内河水与地下水存在极其密切的转化关系,地下水对黄河水的贡献很大。黄河的径流量与基流量主要来自兰州以上的源区,兰州断面的年径流量与基流量分别占花园口断面径流量的59%和60%;而兰州以下到花园口之间的上、中游地区,地下水对黄河水的贡献很小。1990年前后,黄河干流与支流河段的基流量发生了很大变化。除玛多以上的源头段基流量衰减率较大外（衰减率为0.38）,兰州以上的干流河段基流量衰减率较小（0.08～0.20）,而兰州以下的黄河干流基流量衰减率都很大（0.22～0.31）。基流量的剧烈衰减是天然和人类活动（如地下水开采）共同作用下地下水资源量减少的结果。从流域水循环的观点考虑,黄河流域的区域地下水资源由参与黄河水循环的地下水资源、未参与黄河水循环的地下水资源和流域地下水的开采等3大部分构成。1990年6月—2000年6月近10年黄河流域地下水天然资源量平均值为353.9亿m3/a,比多年地下水资源量平均值减少了15%。

黄河源区基流变化及影响因子分析

利用黄河源区的4个水文站及13个气象站的日系列资料,基于改进的加里宁基流分割法,分析了1956—2000年以来黄河源区基流和以水文站为节点控制的各个子流域的基流变化及其影响因素.结果表明:黄河源区基流比例较大,多年平均基流指数为0.652;黄河沿以上流域基流指数为0.556,黄河沿-吉迈区间基流指数为0.588,吉迈-玛曲区间基流指数为0.649,玛曲-唐乃亥区间基流指数高达0.704.从绝对量来看,黄河源区多年平均基流量为132.46×108m3;子流域中,玛多以上流域基流量最小,为3.92×108m3,吉迈-玛曲区间基流量最大,为68.82×108m3.对于整个研究区,年降水量决定年基流量,气温影响基流,气温升高,基流减少.不同子流域的基流对气候变化响应不同,玛曲以上各个子流域基流随气温升高而减少,而在玛曲-唐乃亥区间年气温对年基流量无明显影响.黄河源区年代尺度基流指数和降水量成反比关系.

基于SWAT模型的基流估算及评价——以洛河流域为例

SWAT是一个具有很强物理机制的长时段的流域分布式水文模型,它能够利用GIS和RS提供的空间数据信息,模拟复杂大流域中的径流成分。本文应用SWAT模型对基流进行模拟,分别采用1992～1996年和1997～1998年洛河流域卢氏水文站逐年、月实测径流资料进行模型校准和验证,确定模型的敏感性参数:径流曲线数、地下水再蒸发系数、土壤蒸发补偿系数和植物蒸发补偿系数;并借助滤波技术对实测径流进行基流分割。将滤波分割的基流与SWAT模拟值进行对比,采用线性回归系数(R2)和Nash-Suttclife模拟系数(Ens)对SWAT模型进行评价,其结果月基流R2为0.76,Ens为0.75,模拟精度较高。

数字滤波法在三峡库区香溪河流域基流分割中的应用

三峡水库蓄水后,库区来流水质水量变化备受关注。基流分割在降雨-产流模型,水资源配置,点源和非点源污染解析中有重要意义。本文探讨了数字滤波原理,并以三峡库区香溪河流域为研究对象,利用数字滤波法对流域径流总量进行基流分割,分析滤波方程的参数和次数对基流分割结果的影响。结果表明滤波参数β越大,次数越多,分割得到的基流越小。同时将数字滤波法与平滑最小值法基流分割结果进行对比研究,以最小平滑值法为基准,结合香溪河流域特征,数字滤波法中滤波参数β取值0.925时,采用正-反-正三次滤波的基流分割结果最为恰当。