Effects of gravel on the water absorption characteristics and hydraulic parameters of stony soil

The eastern foothills of the Helan Mountains in China are a typical mountainous region of soil and gravel,where gravel could affect the water movement process in the soil.This study focused on the effects of different gravel contents on the water absorption characteristics and hydraulic parameters of stony soil.The stony soil samples were collected from the eastern foothills of the Helan Mountains in April 2023 and used as the experimental materials to conduct a one-dimensional horizontal soil column absorption experiment.Six experimental groups with gravel contents of 0%,10%,20%,30%,40%,and 50%were established to determine the saturated hydraulic conductivity(K_(s)),saturated water content(θ_(s)),initial water content(θ_(i)),and retention water content(θ_(r)),and explore the changes in the wetting front depth and cumulative absorption volume during the absorption experiment.The Philip model was used to fit the soil absorption process and determine the soil water absorption rate.Then the length of the characteristic wetting front depth,shape coefficient,empirical parameter,inverse intake suction and soil water suction were derived from the van Genuchten model.Finally,the hydraulic parameters mentioned above were used to fit the soil water characteristic curves,unsaturated hydraulic conductivity(K_(θ))and specific water capacity(C(h)).The results showed that the wetting front depth and cumulative absorption volume of each treatment gradually decreased with increasing gravel content.Compared with control check treatment with gravel content of 0%,soil water absorption rates in the treatments with gravel contents of 10%,20%,30%,40%,and 50%decreased by 11.47%,17.97%,25.24%,29.83%,and 42.45%,respectively.As the gravel content increased,inverse intake suction gradually increased,and shape coefficient,K_(s),θ_(s),andθ_(r)gradually decreased.For the same soil water content,soil water suction and K_(θ)gradually decreased with increasing gravel content.At the same soil water suction,C(h)decreased with increasing gravel content,and the water use efficiency worsened.Overall,the water holding capacity,hydraulic conductivity,and water use efficiency of stony soil in the eastern foothills of the Helan Mountains decreased with increasing gravel content.This study could provide data support for improving soil water use efficiency in the eastern foothills of the Helan Mountains and other similar rocky mountainous areas.

Effects of shrub-grass patterns on soil detachment and hydraulic parameters of slope in the Pisha sandstone area of Inner Mongolia,China

The characteristics of soil holding capacity for different shrub-grass patterns are important to research the mechanisms regulating vegetation on slopes.The objective of this study was to describe the characteristics and mecha-nisms of soil erosion and hydraulic parameters under differ-ent vegetation patterns in the Pisha sandstone area of Inner Mongolia on lands of 8°slope gradient.We carried out field scouring experiments on five different shrub-grass patterns as treatments,viz no shrubs(GL),shrubs on the upper part of the slope(SU),middle part of the slope(SM)and lower part of the slope(SL).We designated bare slope(BL)as the control.We employed three different water flow rates(15,20,30 L·min^(−1)).Our results showed that the contribution of plant root systems to slope sediment reduction ranged from 64 to 84%.The root systems proved to be the main contributing factor to reduction of erosion by vegetation.The relationship between soil detachment rate,stream flow power,and flow unit stream power under different scouring discharge rates showed that soil detachment declined in rank order as:BL>GL>SU>SM>SL.The SL pat-tern had the lowest soil detachment rate(0.098 g·m^(−2)·s^(−1)),flow stream power(2.371 W·m^(−2)),flow unit stream power(0.165 m·s^(−1))and flow shear stress(16.986 Pa),and proved to be the best erosion combating pattern.The results of decision coefficient and path analysis showed that stream power was the most important hydraulic parameter for describing soil detachment rate.The combination of stream power and shear stress,namely Dr=0.1ω−0.03τ−0.56(R^(2)=0.924),most accurately simulated the soil detachment characteristics on slopes.Our study suggests that the risk of soil ero-sion can be reduced by planting shrub-grass mixes on these slopes.Under the conditions of limited water resources and economy,the benefit of sediment reduction can be maxi-mized by planting shrubbery on the lower parts of slopes.

Experimental Investigation of Environmental Hydraulic Parameters for Dual Mixed Media Biofilter for Greywater Treatment

Laboratory scale model of DMMBF （dual mixed media biofilter） were designed and installed in AI-Mustansiriya University Environmental Hydraulic Lab. Experiments were conducted using two mixed layers through PVR column--2.2 m height and 300 mm diameter. The first mixed media filter of depth 640mm mixed of sand, rice husk and granular activated carbon. The percentage volume mix is 1：1：1. While the other mixed media of depth 740 mm, consisting of coal, crash porcelinaite, rock and granite with equally percentage volume. Fifty samples were collected during the experiments, which was spread over a period of forty two weeks. The obtained results indicate that when the flow loading raised from 0.15 L/min to 2.7 L/rain, the removal efficiency of BOD decreased 8%-11%, and the removal efficiency of COD deceased 3%-4%, while the removal efficiency of turbidity increased with the decreasing of hydraulic loading. The results showed that the removal efficiency of turbidity is more than 95% at the lower discharge （0.15 L/min）. Therefore, infiltration should be conservatively designed using low loading rates.

A FIELD TEST DATA RESEARCH BASED ON A NEW HYDRAULIC PARAMETERS QUICK TEST TECHNOLOGY

The hydraulic parameter quick test system in accordance with the oscillation principle can overcome the shortcomings of traditional methods in determining hydraulic parameters which,besides having complex hydrogeological restrictions and needing complex equipment in the field,are often both time and energy consuming,and high cost.Based on the hydrogeological conditions in the north anchorage of Taizhou Yangtze River Highway Bridge,a quick hierarchical test is carried out for different depths of single-hole drilling to verify the function of the system in this case.Meanwhile,with a purification of the raw data gathered in the test by wavelet denoising,the hydraulic parameters are worked out by adopting the Kipp model.A comparison between the Kipp model results and stratigraphic data as well as pumping test results justifies the reliability and accuracy of the new method.The study finds other advantages of the method like high efficiency in operation,flexibility in stratified test,as well as environmental-friendliness.Therefore,the technology is of significant practical value and application prospect.

Simultaneous estimation of soil moisture and hydraulic parameters using residual resampling particle filter

Land data assimilation(DA) has gradually developed into an important earth science research method because of its ability to combine model simulations and observations.Integrating new observations into a land surface model by the DA method can correct the predicted trajectory of the model and thus,improve the accuracy of state variables.It can also reduce uncertainties in the model by estimating some model parameters simultaneously.Among the various DA methods,the particle filter is free from the constraints of linear models and Gaussian error distributions,and can be applicable to any nonlinear and non-Gaussian state-space model;therefore,its importance in land data assimilation research has increased.In this study,a DA scheme was developed based on the residual resampling particle filter.Microwave brightness temperatures were assimilated into the macro-scale semi-distributed variance infiltration capacity model to estimate the surface soil moisture and three hydraulic parameters simultaneously.Finally,to verify the scheme,a series of comparative experiments was performed with experimental data obtained during the Soil Moisture Experiment of 2004 in Arizona.The results show that the scheme can improve the accuracy of soil moisture estimations significantly.In addition,the three hydraulic parameters were also well estimated,demonstrating the effectiveness of the DA scheme.

Estimation of hydraulic parameters from pumping tests in a multiaquifer system

The hydrogeologic conditions in Tianjin,China,are characterized by a system of multiple alternating aquifers and aquitards and a high groundwater level.Generally,the groundwater system to a depth of 70 m includes one phreatic aquifer and three semiconfined aquifers(AqI–AqIII).The distribution of aquifers varies greatly.Accurate estimates of aquifer parameters from pumping tests are essential in geotechnical engineering practice.In this study,the applicability of different models for estimating hydraulic parameters in a multiaquifer system is analyzed.To avoid errors in the graphic-analytical process and to enhance the efficiency and accuracy,a hybrid algorithm,called GALMA(a genetic algorithm(GA)combined with the Levenberg–Marquardt(LM)algorithm),is used with the Neuman and Witherspoon model and ratio method.The estimated values in the second and third semiconfined aquifers(AqII and AqIII)from various solutions are compared with the measured data.Further validations based on the prediction of the drawdown values are performed via a three dimensional numerical simulation.

Estimating Hydrogeological Parameters in Covered Carbonate Rocks Using a Discrete-State Compartment Model and Environmental Tritium

Nowadays, isotope environmental technique tends to be used as a reconnaissance tool , both qualitative and quantitative, to calculate the aquifer parameters particularly in carbonate rock aquifers. But, the heterogeneous flow is still problematic when Lumped parameter Models are usually used to calculate the residence times and hydraulic parameters. However, Discrete State Compartment Model can provide a powerful model to heterogeneous medium. One such study was carried on in Dazha valley, where the environmental tritium was used as a tracer for determining hydrogeological parameters based on a discrete state compartment model

An Analytical Method for Relationship Between Hydraulic Diffusivity and Soil Sorptivity

A simple method was developed to relate soil sorptivity to hydraulic diffusivity and water absorption experiments were conducted utilizing one-dimensional horizontal soil columns to validate the relationship. In addition, an estimation method for hydraulic diffusivity with disc infiltrometer was developed. The results indicated a favorable fit of the theoretical relation to the experimental data. Also, the experiment with disc infiltrometer for estimating the diffusivity showed that the new method was feasible.

Analysis on the gear-shifting schedule of hydraulic automatic transmission

With an advanced foreign hydraulic automatic transmission as the objective,an analytical method for the gear-shifting schedule is proposed.First the demanded maximum gradient of test is estimated.Then a test scheme and analytical procedure is formulated by initial test and hypothetical shift parameters.Finally through gear-shifting tests under different road conditions,load,accelerator pedal position limitation,throttle opening and output shaft speed are found to be the gear-shifting parameters.Under a common road condition,the gear-shifting schedule is a double-parameter schedule.Based on the driver＇s demands on braking and dynamic performance,different shift schedules are made under downhill,uphill and quick releasing acceleration pedal conditions.The operation criteria of down-shift schedule on abrupt grade are proposed.

Assessment of groundwater quantity, quality, and associated health risk of the Tano river basin, Ghana

In the Tano River Basin,groundwater serves as a crucial resource;however,its quantity and quality with regard to trace elements and microbiological loadings remain poorly understood due to the lack of groundwater logs and limited water research.This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the Tano River Basin,focusing on three key objectives.First,it investigated the aquifer hydraulic parameters and the results showed significant spatial variations in borehole depths,yields,transmissivity,hydraulic conductivity,and specific capacity.Deeper boreholes were concentrated in the northeastern and southeastern zones,while geological formations,particu-larly the Apollonian Formation,exhibit a strong influence on borehole yields.The study identified areas with high transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity in the southern and eastern regions,suggesting good groundwater avail-ability and suitability for sustainable water supply.Sec-ondly,the research investigated the groundwater quality and observed that the majority of borehole samples fall within WHO(Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality,Environmental Health Criteria,Geneva,2011,2017.http://www.who.int)limit.However,some samples have pH levels below the standards,although the groundwater generally qualifies as freshwater.The study further explores hydrochemical facies and health risk assessment,highlighting the dominance of Ca–HCO3 water type.Trace element analysis reveals minimal health risks from most elements,with chromium(Cr)as the primary contributor to chronic health risk.Overall,this study has provided a key insights into the Tano River Basin’s hydrogeology and associated health risks.The outcome of this research has contributed to the broader understanding of hydrogeologi-cal dynamics and the importance of managing groundwater resources sustainably in complex geological environments.

Modeling of Hillslope Runoff and Soil Erosion at Rainfall Events Using Cellular Automata Approach

A novel quantitative cellular automata (CA) model that simulates and predicts hillslope runoff and soil erosion caused by rainfall events was developed by integrating the local interaction rules and the hillslope surface hydraulic processes. In this CA model, the hillslope surface was subdivided into a series of discrete spatial cells with the same geometric features. At each time step, water and sediment were transported between two adjacent spatial cells. The flow direction was determined by a combination of water surface slope and stochastic assignment. The amounts of interchanged water and sediment were computed using the Chezy-Manning formula and the empirical sediment transport equation. The water and sediment discharged from the open boundary cells were considered as the runoff and the sediment yields over the entire hillslope surface. Two hillslope soil erosion experiments under simulated rainfall events were carried out. Cumulative runoff and sediment yields were measured, respectively. Then, the CA model was applied to simulate the water and soil erosion for these two experiments. Analysis of simulation results indicated that the size of the spatial cell, hydraulic parameters, and the setting of time step and iteration times had a large impact on the model accuracy. The comparison of the simulated and measured data suggested that the CA model was an applicable alternate for simulating the hillslope water flow and soil erosion.

Assessment of Groundwater Resources in Northeastern Sinai Peninsula Constrained by Mathematical Modeling Techniques

The study area extended from El-Gora and its vicinities in the south to E1 Sheikh Zowyed and Rafah cities in the north. Quantitatively the water bearing formation in the area has been illustrated by applying the PMW1N （Processing Modflow for Windows） and modulus contour map techniques. Qualitatively, the groundwater is evaluated by an isosalinity distribution map. The hydraulic parameters of the water bearing formations were determined and evaluated through 12 pumping tests carried out on selected wells. On the other hand, the ground elevation of the study area is illustrated by a DEM （Digital Elevation Model）. The DEM map indicated that the investigated area lies within a low land area. Due to the depths of groundwater （46.1-105 m from the ground surface）, the rainfall replenishment is nearly absent. Based on the resulting modulus contour map, the northern and northwestern portions are characterized by reasonable potentiality of groundwater. Moreover, the eastern and southern portions reflect limited aquifer potentials. The mathematical modeling results revealed that the recharge to the investigated aquifer is about 9.794 million m3.

Application of ensemble H-infinity filter in aquifer characterization andcomparison to ensemble Kalman filter

Though the ensemble Kalman filter （EnKF） has been successfully applied in many areas, it requires explicit and accurate model and measurement error information, leading to difficulties in practice when only limited information on error mechanisms of observational in-struments for subsurface systems is accessible. To handle the uncertain errors, we applied a robust data assimilation algorithm, the ensemble H-infinity filter （EnHF）, to estimation of aquifer hydraulic heads and conductivities in a flow model with uncertain/correlated observational errors. The impacts of spatial and temporal correlations in measurements were analyzed, and the performance of EnHF was compared with that of the EnKF. The results show that both EnHF and EnKF are able to estimate hydraulic conductivities properly when observations are free of error; EnHF can provide robust estimates of hydraulic conductivities even when no observational error information is provided. In contrast, the estimates of EnKF seem noticeably undermined because of correlated errors and inaccurate error statistics, and filter divergence was observed. It is concluded that EnHF is an efficient assimilation algorithm when observational errors are unknown or error statistics are inaccurate.

Study on prediction model of maximum hydraulic extension depth for ultra deep wells considering effects of temperature

How long the ultra deep well can extend and what is the ultra deep well's maximum hydraulic extension depth are always concerned and studied by drilling engineers. The well's maximum hydraulic extension depth can be predicted by the maximum hydraulic extension depth prediction model. To overcome the disadvantage that previous prediction model did not consider the effects of temperature and only applies to horizontal wells, a prediction model of maximum hydraulic extension depth for ultra deep wells considering effects of temperature is established. Considering the effects of temperature coupled with the constraints of drilling pump rated pressure and rated power, the prediction result of ultra deep well's maximum hydraulic extension depth is modified. An ultra deep well developed by Sinopec in Shunbei oilfield, China, is analyzed, and its wellbore temperature profile and maximum hydraulic extension depth are analyzed and predicted. Results show that the maximum hydraulic extension depth with considering temperature is larger than that without considering temperature. With the identical depth, the higher inlet temperature and the greater geothermal gradient mean the higher drilling fluid temperatures in the drill string and annulus as well as the larger maximum hydraulic extension depth. Besides, the maximum depth decreases with the increase in drilling fluid flow rate and density, while it increases with the increase in drilling pump rated pressure and rated power. To ensure the designed depth can be reached, there exists the maximum drilling fluid flow rate and density, as well as the minimum drilling pump rated pressure and rated power. This study is important for accurately predicting the ultra deep well's maximum depth within the limit capacity of drilling pump. In addition, it also plays a major role in avoiding drilling hazards.

Plant-available water capacity of soils at a regional scale:Analysis of fixed and dynamic field capacities

Estimation of the plant-available water capacity(PAWC)of soils at a regional scale helps in adopting better land use planning,developing suitable irrigation schedules for crops,and optimizing the use of scarce water resources.In the current study,72 soil profiles were sampled from the Barossa region of South Australia to estimate pedo-transfer functions deduced from easily estimated soil properties.These functions were then used to estimate the fixed(10 and 33 kPa)and dynamic pressure head(h_(fc))water contents at field capacity(FC)for minimum drainage flux(0.01 and 0.001 cm d^(-1)),which serves as the upper boundary for plant-available water in soils.The estimated residual water content was corrected for subsoil constraints,especially the exchangeable sodium percentage(ESP).The results showed that the mean values of h_(fc)in sand-dominated light and medium textured soils(i.e.,sand,loamy sand,sandy loam,and loam)varied in a narrow range(15.8-18.2 kPa),whereas those in the clay-dominated heavy textured soils(i.e.,clay loam)showed a wide range(11.3-49.3 kPa).There were large differences in PAWC for dynamic FC(PAWC_(fc))and fixed FC at 10 kPa(PAWC10),33 kPa(PAWC33),and a mix of 10and 33 kPa(PAWC_(10,33))pressure heads depending on soil texture.Normally,the difference between PAWC at 10 kPa and h_(fc)(ΔPAWC_(10))was positive,whereas that between 33 kPa and h_(fc)(ΔPAWC_(33))was negative across all sites.Nevertheless,the estimation of PAWC assuming a fixed FC at 10 and 33 kPa pressures(i.e.,PAWC_(10,33))for sandy,clay,and silty soils reduced the difference between fixed and dynamic pressure PAWCs to<10% across the region.The estimation of PAWC was improved by incorporating the impact of subsoil constraints,such as high ESP,which was more pronounced for clay and silty soils.These findings demonstrate the inherent inconsistencies between static pressure and flux-based dynamic FC estimations in soils.Soil heterogeneity,intra-texture variability,subsoil constraints,and swell-shrink clays can have great impacts on the water retention capacity in response to dynamic and fixed pressure FC values.

Runoff-and erosion-reducing effects of vegetation on the loess hillslopes of China under concentrated flow

Evaluating the effects of revegetation on runoff and erosion reduction is essential for studying soil and water conservation on the Loess Plateau after implementation of China's Grain for Green Project.However,quantifying the influence of revegetation on the erosion caused by concentrated runoff in extreme rainstorms is still challenging.To evaluate this influence,scouring-erosion experiments were implemented in situ on the vegetated hillslope plots(GR)and bare hillslope plots(CK).The runoffreducing effects of grass(GRR)averaged 31%,20%and 8%,and the erosion-reducing effects of grass(GER)averaged 93%,95%and 93%on the 5-plots,10-plots and 18-plots,respectively.The ratios of GRR to GER were 0.09e0.33,implying that the ability of vegetation to reduce erosion was greater than its ability to reduce runoff.The GRR and GER obviously decreased as the inflow rate increased,and the GRR decreased as the hillslope gradient increased,but there were no obvious differences in the GER between hillslope gradients.Vegetation could decrease the ability of the concentrated flow to carry and transport sediment and increase the energy consumption of the concentrated flow in response to hydraulic resistance.Vegetation also significantly reduced the degree of rill development.The degree of rill dissection on the GR(0.054e0.087 m^(2)m^(2))was lower than that on the CK(0.061e0.184 m^(2)m^(2)).Our findings provide an essential reference for ecological environment and vegetation restoration on loess hillslopes.

Sensitivity analysis of the SWAP(Soil-Water-Atmosphere-Plant)model under different nitrogen applications and root distributions in saline soils

Sensitivity analysis is important for determining the parameters in the model calibration process.In our study,a variance-based global sensitivity analysis(extended Fourier amplitude sensitivity test,EFAST)was applied to an agro-hydrological model(the SWAP(Soil-Water-Atmosphere-Plant model)model).The sensitivities of 20 parameters belonging to 4 categories(soil hydraulics,solute transport,root water uptake,and environmental stresses)for the simulated accumulated transpiration,dry matter(DM),and yield of sunflowers were analyzed under three nitrogen application rates(N1,N2,and N3),four salinity levels(S1,S2,S3,and S4),and three root distributions(R1,R2,and R3).The results indicated that for predominantly loamy soils,the high-impact parameters for accumulated transpiration,DM,and yield were the soil hydraulic parameters(αand n),critical stress index for compensatory root water uptake(ωc),the salt level at which salt stress starts(Pi),the decline of root water uptake above Pi(SSF),residual water content(θr),saturated water content(θs),and relative uptake of solutes by roots(TSCF).We also found that nitrogen application did not change the order of the parameter impacts on accumulated transpiration,DM,and yield.However,TSCF replacedαas the highest-impact parameter for the accumulated transpiration,DM,and yield at high salinity levels(S2 and S3).Furthermore,αwas also the highest-impact parameter for DM and yield under different root distributions,but the highest-impact parameters for transpiration wereωc,α,andθs under R1,R2,and R3,respectively.Nitrogen application could be neglected when considering the interactive effects of nitrogen application,salinity level,and root distribution on the transpiration,DM,and yield.Additionally,the mean values and uncertainties of the transpiration,DM,and yield were similar in all scenarios,except S3,which showed a sharp decrease in the mean values.We suggest determining the above eight parameters(α,n,ωc,Pi,SSF,θr,θs,and TSCF)and the saturated vertical hydraulic conductivity(Ks)based on rigorous calibrations with direct or indirect local measurements using economical methods(e.g.,a literature review),with limited observations for other parameters when using the SWAP model and other similar agro-hydrological models.