Association between fundamental motor skills and physical activity in the early years:A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background:Physical activity(PA)in the early years is associated with a range of positive health outcomes.Fundamental motor skill(FMS)competence is associated with PA and is theorized to be driven by PA in the early years and vice versa in mid to late childhood.However,to date,no studies have meta-analyzed the association between PA and FMS in the early years.Methods:Six electronic databases were searched for articles published up to April 2019.Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies were included if they targeted children(ages 3-6 year)as the population of the study and assessed the association between objectively measured PA and FMS.Total FMS,total physical activity(TPA),and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity(MVPA)data were meta-analyzed using a random effects model.Results:We identified 24,815 titles and abstracts.In total,19 studies met the inclusion criteria,including 14 cross-sectional and 4 longitudinal studies,as well as 1 study with cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis.There was a significant but small positive association between FMS and MVPA(r=0.20,95%confidence interval(CI):0.13-0.26)and TPA(r=0.20,95%CI:0.12-0.28).Findings from longitudinal studies revealed that PA drives FMS in early childhood.Mediation was explored in 1 study,which found that perceived motor competence did not mediate the association between FMS and PA.Conclusion:Using a meta-analysis,this study is the first to show a positive association between FMS,MVPA,and TPA in the early years of childhood,suggesting that the association begins at an early age.Limited evidence from longitudinal studies supports the theory that PA drives FMS in the early years of childhood.More evidence is needed from large studies to track PA and FMS until mid to late childhood and to explore the mediators of this association.

The Effects of Therapeutic Horseback Riding Program on Motor Skills inChildren with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Therapeutic horseback riding(THR)as an animal-assisted intervention is one of the innovative approaches emer-ging in the treatment for children with autism spectrum disorder(ASD).The current study was designed to inves-tigate the effects of a 12-week,twice a week THR program on motor skills in sixty-eight children with ASD aged 5–10 years old.All participants selected met the DSM-V criteria for ASD,and a total offifty-three participants completed the study.A randomized controlled trial design was utilized for the study.Data was collected via a pre-THR test,interim-THR test,and post-THR test to investigate the possible changes in motor skills throughout the 12-week THR program.Results showed that the THR program significantly improved overall motor skills across time points(p<0.05)and sub-skills of run,gallop and two-hand catch(as compared to the control group,p<0.05).In conclusion,the THR program may be an effective option for improving motor skills in children with ASD and further investigation with a longer period of intervention is warranted.

The Impact of Fidget Spinners on Fine Motor Skills in Individuals with and without ADHD: An Exploratory Analysis

Fidget spinners have been marketed as repetitive motion devices that improve attention and motor performance, and as such, they have become quite appealing to individuals with Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD). To date, no studies have explored changes in brain activity that may occur due to fidgeting in ADHD. Our aim was to use functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) to examine the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during the performance of a standardized fine motor skills test after using a fidget spinner. Eight right-handed adults with ADHD and eight age and gender matched adults without ADHD (4F/4M, 4 control/4 fidget) performed the Purdue Pegboard Test (PPT) while their brain oxygenation was monitored using fNIRS. Relative neural efficiency (RNE) and involvement (RNI) were calculated and analyzed for all subtasks of PPT including the less cognitively demanding fine motor subtasks and more complex assembly tasks. The fidget spinner improved both task performance and RNE in the ADHD group but not the non-ADHD group for the less cognitively demanding subtasks. Our results indicate Fidget spinners may improve both relative neural efficiency and fine motor performance in adults with ADHD for less cognitively demanding tasks.

Perceptual Visuo-Motor Skills and Handwriting Production of Children With Learning Disabilities

This study aimed to explore the performance of the perceptual-visuomotor skills and the production of handwriting in children with Learning Disabilities.A total of 56 children participated,being a convenience sample,of both sexes,average age of eight years old,from 3rd to 5th grade level of Elementary School.The children were divided into the following groups:GI(28 children diagnosed with Learning Disabilities);GII(28 children with good academic performance,paired with GI in relation to chronological age and sex).They were evaluated individually in dysgraphic scale,visual perception development test,and fine motor evaluation.Data analysis was performed.There was a significant difference between GI and GII for the subtests of eye-hand coordination,copying,visual closure,fine motor precision,and fine manual control tests.They had difference between the groups for handwriting performance in descending and/or ascending subtests,irregularity of dimension,poor forms,and total score of Dysgraphia Scale.The results presented in this study indicate that children with Learning Disabilities can manifest significant visomotor impairment and deficit in legibility and handwriting quality,causing failures in the elaboration of sensorimotor plans that,added to the intrinsic deficit of long-term memory,result in persistent academic difficulties.

Motor Tests in Primary and Secondary School: Exploring Basic Motor Skills in Children

The foundations for an adult’s authentic and durable dedication in sport or in any kind of motor activity are laid by providing a good quality physical education.This means that the choice of learning experiences to be imparted to the child throughout his or her school curriculum,starting from kindergarten,is important and must be not only planned,inclusive and progressive but also,in some way,personalised.In other words,lessons must respond to the children’s needs in order to enhance their motor skills and abilities and their social skills and to give an input on how to lead a physically active life,thus keeping basic motor skills alive.The research involved the administration of the Mobak 5-6 Test on a convenience sample of 31 children(f=12,m=19),aged 10-12 years,in order to analyse the basic motor skills of a group of young athletes.An individual qualitative and quantitative motor repertoire must therefore be built,allowing the child to be able to take the opportunities offered to him or her in both curricular and extracurricular scholastic field.These motor skills,with which the child is provided,will also be useful for cultivating correct physical activity habits in later life and must be formed through systematic evaluation of the development of his or her motor skills.

Research on the Impact of Core Strength Training on the Motor Skills of Tennis Beginners

With the popularity of tennis in the sports world,more and more beginners are joining this sport.However,for beginners,how to improve motor skills and game performance is still an important issue.Core strength training has potential as a potential adjunct to improve overall fitness and skill in athletes.Therefore,this research aimed to explore the potential impact of core strength training on the motor skills of tennis beginners to provide better training strategies and guidance for coaches and athletes.

Fundamental motor skills,screen-time,and physical activity in preschoolers

Purpose: To examine the associations among preschoolers fundamental motor skills, screen-time, physical activity(PA), and sedentary behavior(SB).Methods: Children ages 3à4 years were enrolled in a prospective observational trial of PA. Trained assessors conducted the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 rd edition(TGMD-3), and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 nd edition, and parent-reported child screen-time and sociodemographic information. Children wore an accelerometer for 7 days to examine SB and total PA(TPA). TPA was further characterized as moderateto-vigorous PA(MVPA) or vigorous PA(VPA). Mixed linear models were calculated, controlling for age(for TGMD-3), sex, household income, and accelerometer wear time(for accelerometry models), with childcare center as a random effect. The primary analysis reported on the cross-sectional baseline data of 126 children with complete fundamental motor skill and screen-time data; a subanalysis included 88 children with complete accelerometry data.Results: Children were 3.4 § 0.5 years of age(54% girls; 46% white, 42% African American, 12% other). A total of 48% lived in households at or below the federal poverty level. Children engaged in 5.1 § 3.6 h/day of screen-time. Children's screen-time was inversely related to the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 nd edition, manual dexterity skills percentile(b(SE) = ?1.7(0.8), p = 0.049). In the accelerometry subsample,children engaged in 5.9 § 0.9 h/day of TPA of which 1.7 § 0.6 h/day was MVPA. Boys engaged in more MVPA and VPA and less SB compared with girls(all p < 0.05). A higher TGMD-3, total score(b(SE) = 0.4(0.2), p = 0.017) and locomotor score(b(SE) = 0.7(0.3), p = 0.018) were associated with more VPA but not with TPA or MVPA. Screen-time and television in the bedroom were not related to SB, TPA, MVPA, or VPA.Conclusion: Children's motor skills were positively related to VPA but inversely related to screen-time. Further inquiry into the implications of high exposure to screen-time in young children is needed.

The effect of the CHAMP intervention on fundamental motor skills and outdoor physical activity in preschoolers

Purpose: Physical activity(PA) and fundamental motor skills are important components of current and future trajectories of health in young children. This study examined the effects of a 5-week motor skill intervention on preschoolers' motor skill competence and their PA behaviors while participating in the motor skill intervention or outdoor free play(recess).Methods: A total of 102 preschoolers served as participants and were part of a motor skill intervention group(n = 64) or a control/outdoor free play group(n = 38). Children's motor skills were assessed before and after the intervention using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 rd edition. PA during the motor skill intervention and outdoor free play was assessed using accelerometers both immediately before the start(baseline, Week 0 or Week 1) and end(late, Week 5 or Week 6) of the intervention.Results: All children significantly improved their motor skills from baseline to late assessment(p < 0.05). Children in the motor skill intervention demonstrated greater rates of change(p < 0.001) and scored higher on all motor skills at the late assessment compared with the control group(p < 0.001). There was no effect of group(control vs. intervention), but there was a significant effect of sex on children's PA during outdoor free play at baseline(p < 0.05). Similarly, there was no effect of group on PA during days with the movement program(intervention vs. outdoor free play) at either time point, but boys were more active than girls at the late assessment(p < 0.05). Last, children in the intervention engaged in more PA while participating in the intervention toward the end of the intervention than at the beginning.Conclusion: The 5-week motor skill intervention was effective at improving preschoolers' motor skills and rates of change in motor skills were higher for children who completed the intervention compared with children in the control group. Preschoolers in the intervention did demonstrate PA changes while participating in the intervention, but these changes did not translate outside of the intervention setting.

Prior Somatic Stimulation Improves Performance of Acquired Motor Skill by Facilitating Functional Connectivity in Cortico-Subcortical Motor Circuits

Once people have a well-trained motor skill, their performance becomes stabilized and achieving substantial improvement is difficult. Recently, we have shown that even a plateaued hand motor skill can be upgraded with short-period electrical stimulation to the hand prior to the task. Here, we identify the neuronal substrates underlying the improvement of the plateaued skill by examining the enhanced functional connectivity in the sensory-motor regions that are associated with motor learning. We measured brain activity using functional magnetic resonance imaging and performed psychophysiological interaction analysis. We recruited seven right-handed very-well trained participants, whose motor performance of continuously rotating two balls with their right hands became stabilized at higher performance levels. We prepared two experiments, in each of which they repeated an experimental run 16 times. In each run, they performed this cyclic rotation as many times as possible in 16 s. In the thenar-stimulation experiment, we applied 60-s stimulation to the thenar muscle before each of the 5th - 12th runs, and the others were preceded by ineffective sham stimulation. In the control experiment, the sham was always provided. Thenar stimulation enabled the participants to perform the movements at higher cycles. In association with this performance improvement, we found enhanced activity couplings between the primary motor cortex and the sensorimotor territory of the putamen and between the cerebellum and the primary sensorimotor cortices, without any quantitative activity increase. Neither behavioral change nor these increased activity couplings were observed in the control.Thus, in contrast to the stable neuronal states in the cortico-subcortical motor circuits when the well-learned task is repeated at the later stages of motor skill learning, plastic changes in the motor circuits seem to be required when the plateaued skill is upgraded, and the stimulation may entail a state of readiness for the plastic change that allows subsequent performance improvement.

Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment(CAMSA):Validity, objectivity, and reliability evidence for children 8–12 years of age

Purpose: The primary aim of this study was to develop an assessment of the fundamental, combined, and complex movement skills required to support childhood physical literacy. The secondary aim was to establish the feasibility, objectivity, and reliability evidence for the assessment.Methods: An expert advisory group recommended a course format for the assessment that would require children to complete a series of dynamic movement skills. Criterion-referenced skill performance and completion time were the recommended forms of evaluation. Children, 8–12 years of age, self-reported their age and gender and then completed the study assessments while attending local schools or day camps. Face validity was previously established through a Delphi expert(n = 19, 21% female) review process. Convergent validity was evaluated by age and gender associations with assessment performance. Inter-and intra-rater(n = 53, 34% female) objectivity and test–retest(n = 60, 47% female) reliability were assessed through repeated test administration.Results: Median total score was 21 of 28 points(range 5–28). Median completion time was 17 s. Total scores were feasible for all 995 children who self-reported age and gender. Total score did not differ between inside and outside environments(95% confidence interval(CI) of difference:-0.7 to 0.6;p = 0.91) or with/without footwear(95%CI of difference:-2.5 to 1.9; p = 0.77). Older age(p < 0.001, η2= 0.15) and male gender(p < 0.001, η2= 0.02)were associated with a higher total score. Inter-rater objectivity evidence was excellent(intraclass correlation coefficient(ICC) = 0.99) for completion time and substantial for skill score(ICC = 0.69) for 104 attempts by 53 children(34% female). Intra-rater objectivity was moderate(ICC = 0.52) for skill score and excellent for completion time(ICC = 0.99). Reliability was excellent for completion time over a short(2–4 days; ICC = 0.84) or long(8–14days; ICC = 0.82) interval. Skill score reliability was moderate(ICC = 0.46) over a short interval, and substantial(ICC = 0.74) over a long interval.Conclusion: The Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment is a feasible measure of selected fundamental, complex and combined movement skills, which are an important building block for childhood physical literacy. Moderate-to-excellent objectivity was demonstrated for children 8–12 years of age. Test–retest reliability has been established over an interval of at least 1 week. The time and skill scores can be accurately estimated by 1 trained examiner.

Application of a hospital–community–family trinity rehabilitation nursing model combined with motor imagery therapy in patients with cerebral infarction

BACKGROUND Rehabilitation nursing is considered an indispensable part of the cerebral infarction treatment system.The hospital–community–family trinity rehabilitation nursing model can provide continuous nursing services across hospitals,communities,and families for patients.AIM To explore the application of a hospital–community–family rehabilitation nursing model combined with motor imagery therapy in patients with cerebral infarction.METHODS From January 2021 to December 2021,88 patients with cerebral infarction were divided into a study(n=44)and a control(n=44)group using a simple random number table.The control group received routine nursing and motor imagery therapy.The study group was given hospital–community–family trinity rehabilitation nursing based on the control group.Motor function(FMA),balance ability(BBS),activities of daily living(BI),quality of life(SS-QOL),activation status of the contralateral primary sensorimotor cortical area to the affected side,and nursing satisfaction were evaluated before and after intervention in both groups.RESULTS Before intervention,FMA and BBS were similar(P>0.05).After 6 months’intervention,FMA and BBS were significantly higher in the study than in the control group(both P<0.05).Before intervention,BI and SS-QOL scores were not different between the study and control group(P>0.05).However,after 6months’intervention,BI and SS-QOL were higher in the study than in the control group(P<0.05).Before intervention,activation frequency and volume were similar between the study and the control group(P>0.05).After 6 months’intervention,the activation frequency and volume were higher in the study than in the control group(P<0.05).The reliability,empathy,reactivity,assurance,and tangibles scores for quality of nursing service were higher in the study than in the control group(P<0.05).CONCLUSION Combining a hospital–community–family trinity rehabilitation nursing model and motor imagery therapy enhances the motor function and balance ability of patients with cerebral infarction,improving their quality of life.

Effect of Soccer Games on Gross Motor Development in Preschoolers

This study investigated the effects of playing soccer on the quality of gross motor skills in preschoolers. A 2-group, pretest-posttest design was adopted, comprising both an experimental and a control group. The participants were recruited from 2 public kindergartens located in New Taipei City, Taiwan. The approval of the legal representatives of the 101 preschoolers enrolled in these kindergartens and aged between 4 years and 6 years and 11 months was obtained, and purposive grouping was subsequently conducted. The experimental group comprised 44 participants from the first kindergarten, whereas the control group comprised 43 participants from the second kindergarten. After the recruitment, the experimental group received a soccer program intervention： a 10-week soccer program with two 40-minute sessions per week. Before and after the experiment, the gross motor quality of both groups was measured using the Preschooler Gross Motor Quality Scale, which covers tests for locomotion, object manipulation, and balance. The results of the 10-week intervention showed significantly higher scores for locomotion, object manipulation, balance, and overall gross motor quality in the experimental group than in the control group. This study confirmed that a 10-week soccer program is beneficial for gross motor development in preschoolers. The research results can serve as a reference for gross motor development in preschool education.

Construct and correlates of basic motor competencies in primary school-aged children

Background: A central aim of physical education is the promotion of basic motor competencies(in German: Motorische Basiskompetenzen;MOBAK), which are prerequisites for children's active participation in sports culture. This article introduces the MOBAK-1 test instrument for 6-to 8-year-old children and determines the construct validity of this test instrument. In addition, the relationship between MOBAK and motor ability(i.e., strength) as well as body mass index(BMI), sex, and age is investigated.Methods: We analyzed data of 923 first and second graders(422 girls, 501 boys, age = 6.80 ±0.44 years). The children's basic motor competencies were assessed by the MOBAK-1 test instrument. Besides analyses of frequency, correlation, and variance, 3 confirmatory factor analyses with covariates were performed.Results: We found 2 MOBAK factors consisting of 4 items each. The first factor, locomotion, included the items balancing, rolling, jumping, and side stepping; the second factor, object control, included the items throwing, catching, bouncing, and dribbling. The motor ability strength had a significant influence on the factors locomotion(b = 0.60) and object control(b = 0.50). Older pupils achieved better results than younger pupils on object control(b = 0.29). Boys performed better on object control(b = -0.44), whereas girls achieved better results in locomotion(b = 0.07).Pupils with a high BMI achieved lower performance only on the factor locomotion(b =-0.28).Conclusion: The MOBAK-1 test instrument developed for this study meets psychometric validity demands and is suitable to evaluate effects of sports and physical education.

The Differences between Second Language Learning and Skill Learning

People learn things all their lives. They learn various skills in order to live. In these skills there are language learning and many other kinds of learning. This paper is intended to show some differences between second language learning and skill learning. Theories on Second Language Acquisition and Motor Skill learning are introduced exclusively.

推拿手法实训教学以近带远训练方法初探

为使推拿手法初学者养成专业动作习惯,有效预防职业损伤,更好、更快地掌握推拿手法技能,高效的教学方法非常重要。此文从教育心理学关于动作技能形成的相关论述中获得启发,针对手法实训教学中注重的示范、练习和反馈环节所存在的问题进行分析和改革探索,提出分解示范和部分练习的教学思路,并通过对手法上肢动作运动方式的分析,把手法动作分解为单一动作,再由单一动作到复合动作,编排成体操,拟定了“以近带远”训练方法——“上肢手法操”六节,以期为推拿手法实训教学提供新的方法和思路。

“调身子”:武术技能掌握与否的黄金分割点

武术是以破坏对方重心,使其失衡为主进行攻防技击的技能,能自主“调身子”是稳定重心的关键,是掌握武术技能的黄金分割点。习练武术时能利用身法协调手、脚等完成虚实动作便基本学会了武术。与学校武术不同,传统武术“调身子”强调脊椎的起落、进退等衔接转折,是身体虚实变化与一体化发劲的前提与基础。

家园共评视角下父母与教师对儿童动作发展评价关系的探讨

现阶段儿童的动作发展受到个体、环境与动作任务之间的交互影响,这与其身体健康、认知能力和社会性等领域的发展密切相关,儿童基本动作技能发展的早期评估与运动发育障碍、迟缓的识别对其身心健康的全面发展至关重要。目的:本研究以社会生态系统理论与动作发展理论为理论基础,在家园共评视角下,探析父母与教师对儿童动作发展评估的关系,检验父母提供的信息能否真实反映儿童基本动作技能的发展水平,弥补以往儿童动作评价中教师结果性评价为主的不足,推动家园共育共评的实现。方法:采用整群抽样的方法选取陕西省西安市XX幼儿园的275名幼儿(女孩141名,男孩134名,平均年龄为4.95±0.85,年龄范围3-6岁)由教师采用MOBAK-KG进行标准化的运动测试,测试一周后由家长填写《儿童动作发展家庭自评问卷》(FSAQ),使用spss26.0对二者的结果进行对比分析,探讨父母评价与教师评价之间的关系。结果:(1)儿童全年龄段的FSAQ问卷总分与MOBAK-KG测试总分之间仅存在微弱的相关性(r=0.318,P<0.001),二者对3~4岁年龄段儿童的动作发展评价存在负相关但无显著性,对4~6岁年龄段儿童的动作发展评价相关性较高,其中5~6岁年龄段的相关性最为明显,且二者对移动性动作技能评价的相关性明显高于操作性动作技能。结论:(1)虽然父母评价是一种简单高效的评估手段可以弥补儿童动作发展评价过程中的不足之处,但父母评价与教师评价之间仅存在微弱到中等程度的联系,表明父母未够准确提供儿童基本动作技能的发展信息,二者间的差异主要受到评价任务、环境及父母对基本动作技能整体发展序列了解程度的影响。

注意缺陷多动障碍儿童粗大动作技能与执行功能发展的特点及关系

目的探讨学龄期注意缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)儿童的粗大动作技能和执行功能的发展特点及其相关关系。方法2020年11月至2021年5月于北京大学第六医院和北京市海淀区万泉小学招募90例ADHD儿童,从该小学另募集年龄和性别匹配的正常发育儿童90例。采用儿童粗大动作发展测试量表第三版(TGMD-3)评估儿童的粗大动作技能,采用Stroop色词测验(SCWT)、Rey-Osterrich复杂图形测验(ROCFT)、连线测验(TMT)分别评估儿童的抑制控制、工作记忆和认知灵活性。结果ADHD儿童TGMD-3得分显著低于正常儿童(t=-6.275,P<0.001),SCWT、ROCFT、TMT测试结果均差于正常儿童(|t|≥1.986,P≤0.05)。ADHD儿童的TGMD-3得分与字义反应时(r=-0.261)、字义错误数(r=-0.404)、颜色错误数(r=-0.326)呈负相关(P<0.05),与延时结构记忆得分(r=0.228)呈正相关(P<0.05),与TMT-A反应时(r=-0.255)、TMT-A错误数(r=-0.329)、TMT-B反应时(r=-0.214)、TMT-B错误数(r=-0.474)呈负相关(P<0.05)。分层线性回归分析显示,ADHD儿童的TGMD-3得分仅对抑制控制和认知灵活性的测试结果具有预测作用(P<0.05),解释率分别为8.7%和22.5%。结论ADHD儿童的粗大动作技能和执行功能均存在发育滞后,且两者之间有一定关联,其中,粗大动作技能水平可在一定程度上影响抑制控制和认知灵活性的发展。

小学3~6年级学生基本运动技能与感知运动能力、身体活动水平的关系

目的:探讨小学3~6年级学生基本运动技能与感知运动能力、身体活动水平的关系。方法:采用大肌肉动作发展测评工具(TGMD-3)、感知运动能力分量表、儿童青少年身体活动水平问卷对小学3~6年级437名学生的基本运动技能、身体活动水平、感知运动能力进行调查;运用SPSS22.0和Mplus8.3软件进行数据分析,并用Bootstrap法分析变量之间的预测关系及中介效应。结果:男生的操控性技能、感知运动能力和身体活动水平高于女生(P<0.01);小学3~6年级学生基本运动技能、感知运动能力与身体活动水平呈低至中等正相关(r=0.103~0.477,P<0.05);小学3~6年级学生基本运动技能预测感知运动能力(β=0.222,P<0.001),感知运动能力预测身体活动水平(β=0.569,P<0.001),感知运动能力在基本运动技能与身体活动水平之间起部分中介作用。结论:小学阶段重视学生基本运动技能和感知运动能力的发展,有助于提高其身体活动水平。