Recent advances in transition metal phosphide materials:Synthesis and applications in supercapacitors

Supercapacitors(SCs)are considered promising energy storge systems because of their outstanding power density,fast charge and discharge rate and long-term cycling stability.The exploitation of cheap and efficient electrode materials is the key to improve the performance of supercapacitors.As the battery-type materials,transition metal phosphides(TMPs)possess high theoretical specific capacity,good electrical conductivity and superior structural stability,which have been extensively studied to be electrode materials for supercapacitors.In this review,we summarize the up-to-date progress on TMPs materials from diversified synthetic methods,diverse nanostructures and several prominent TMPs and their composites in application of supercapacitors.In the end,we also propose the remaining challenges toward the rational discovery and synthesis of high-performance TMP electrodes materials for energy storage.

Templated synthesis of transition metal phosphide electrocatalysts for oxygen and hydrogen evolution reactions

Transition metal phosphides(TMPs)have been regarded as alternative hydrogen evolution reaction(HER)and oxygen evolution reaction(OER)catalysts owing to their comparable activity to those of noble metal-based catalysts.TMPs have been produced in various morphologies,including hollow and porous nanostructures,which are features deemed desirable for electrocatalytic materials.Templated synthesis routes are often responsible for such morphologies.This paper reviews the latest advances and existing challenges in the synthesis of TMP-based OER and HER catalysts through templated methods.A comprehensive review of the structure-property-performance of TMP-based HER and OER catalysts prepared using different templates is presented.The discussion proceeds according to application,first by HER and further divided among the types of templates used-from hard templates,sacrificial templates,and soft templates to the emerging dynamic hydrogen bubble template.OER catalysts are then reviewed and grouped according to their morphology.Finally,prospective research directions for the synthesis of hollow and porous TMP-based catalysts,such as improvements on both activity and stability of TMPs,design of environmentally benign templates and processes,and analysis of the reaction mechanism through advanced material characterization techniques and theoretical calculations,are suggested.

Integration of morphology and electronic structure modulation on cobalt phosphide nanosheets to boost photocatalytic hydrogen evolution from ammonia borane hydrolysis

The controllable and safe hydrogen storage technologies are widely recognized as the main bottleneck for the accomplishment of sustainable hydrogen energy.Ammonia borane(AB)has regarded as a competitive candidate for chemical hydrogen storage.However,developing efficient yet high-performance catalysts towards hydrogen evolution from AB hydrolysis remains an enormous challenge.Herein,cobalt phosphide nanosheets are synthesized by a facile salt-assisted along with low-temperature phosphidation strategy for simultaneously modulating its morphology and electronic structure,and function as hydrogen evolution photocatalysts.Impressively,the Co_(2)P nanosheets display extraordinary performance with a record high turnover frequency of 44.9 min^(-1),outperforming most of the noble-metal-free catalysts reported to date.This remarkable performance is attributed to its desired nanosheets structure,featuring with high specific surface area,abundant exposed active sites,and short charge diffusion paths.Our findings provide a novel strategy for regulating metal phosphides with desired phase structure and morphology for energy-related applications and beyond.

Stability and melting behavior of boron phosphide under high pressure

Boron phosphide(BP)has gained significant research attention due to its unique photoelectric and mechanical properties.In this work,we investigated the stability of BP under high pressure using x-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscope.The phase diagram of BP was explored in both B-rich and P-rich environments,revealing crucial insight into its behavior at 5.0 GPa.Additionally,we measured the melting curve of BP from 8.0 GPa to 15.0 GPa.Our findings indicate that the stability of BP under high pressure is improved within B-rich and P-rich environments.Furthermore,we report a remarkable observation of melting curve frustration at 10.0 GPa.This study will enhance our understanding of stability of BP under high pressure,shedding light on its potential application in semiconductor,thermal,and light-transmitting devices.

MOF-Derived Iron-Cobalt Phosphide Nanoframe as Bifunctional Electrocatalysts for Overall Water Splitting

Transition metal phosphides(TMPs)have emerged as an alternative to precious metals as efficient and low-cost catalysts for water electrolysis.Elemental doping and morphology control are effective approaches to further improve the performance of TMPs.Herein,Fe-doped CoP nanoframes(Fe-CoP NFs)with specific open cage configuration were designed and synthesized.The unique nano-framework structured Fe-CoP material shows overpotentials of only 255 and 122 mV at 10 mA cm^(−2)for oxygen evolution reaction(OER)and hydrogen evolution reaction(HER),respectively,overwhelming most transition metal phosphides.For overall water splitting,the cell voltage is 1.65 V for Fe-CoP NFs at a current density of 10 mA cm^(−2),much superior to what is observed for the classical nanocubic structures.Fe-CoP NFs show no activity degradation up to 100 h which contrasts sharply with the rapidly decaying performance of noble metal catalyst reference.The superior electrocatalytic performance of Fe-CoP NFs due to abundant accessible active sites,reduced kinetic energy barrier,and preferable*O-containing intermediate adsorption is demonstrated through experimental observations and theoretical calculations.Our findings could provide a potential method for the preparation of multifunctional material with hollow structures and offer more hopeful prospects for obtaining efficient earth-abundant catalysts for water splitting.

Isotherm,kinetic and thermodynamic investigations of boron phosphide to remove methylene blue from aqueous solution

In this work,the boron phosphide(BP)was synthesized and used for the adsorptive removal of methylene blue(MB)dye from aqueous solutions.To determine the optimum adsorption conditions,studies were performed by varying parameters of temperature(298–328 K),pH(2–12),contact time(0–120 min),adsorbent dose(0.01–0.20 g/50 mL),and dye concentration(10–50 mg/L).Different isotherm and kinetic models were applied to the adsorption data.The linear correlations coefficient showed that the Langmuir isotherm best fits(R^(2)=0.9996).The maximum adsorption capacity of BP was obtained as 555.56 mg/g at 55℃and the removal rate reached up to 84.11%.Additionally,the pseudo-second-order kinetic model described the adsorption process best(R^(2)=0.9998).The thermodynamic studies represented that the adsorption occurred spontaneously(ΔG_(A)^(Θ)=−24.90 kJ/mol)and endothermically(ΔH_(A)^(Θ)=16.67 kJ/mol).The results showed that BP is an efficient adsorbent for removing cationic dyes from aqueous solutions.

A general synthetic strategy for N, P co-doped graphene supported metal-rich noble metal phosphides for hydrogen generation

The exploitation of electrocatalysts with high activity and durability for HER is desirable for future energy systems,but it is still a challenge.NMPs have attracted increasing attentions,but the preparation process often needs toxic regents or dangerous reaction conditions.Herein,we develop a general green method to fabricate metal-rich NMPs anchored on NPG through pyrolyzing DNA cross-linked complexes.The obtained Ru_(2) P-NPG exhibits an ultrasmall overpotential of 7 mV at 10 mA cm^(2) and ultralow Tafel slope of 33 mV dec^(-1) in 1.0 mol L?1 KOH,even better than that of commercial Pt/C.In addition,Ru 2 P-NPG also shows low overpotentials of 29 and 78 mV in 0.5 mol L^(-1) H_(2)SO_(4) and 1.0 mol L^(-1) PBS,respectively.The superior activity can be attributed to the ultrafine dispersion of Ru 2 P nanoparticles for more accessible sites,more defects formed for abundant active sites,the two-dimensional plane structure for accelerated electron transfer and mass transport,as well as the regulation of electron distribution of the catalyst.Moreover,the synthetic method can also be applied to prepare other metal-rich noble metal phosphides(Pd_(3)P-NPG and Rh_(2)P-NPG),which also exhibits high activity for HER.This work provides an effective strategy for designing NMP-based electrocatalysts.

Atomic orbitals modulated dual functional bimetallic phosphides derived from MOF on MOF structure for boosting high efficient overall water splitting

The electronic modulation characteristics of efficient metal phosphide electrocatalysts can be utilized to tune the performance of oxygen evolution reaction(OER).However,improving the overall water splitting performance remains a challenging task.By building metal organic framework(MOF)on MOF heterostructures,an efficient strategy for controlling the electrical structure of MOFs was presented in this study.ZIF-67 was in-situ synthesized on MIL-88(Fe)using a two-step self-assembly method,followed by low-temperature phosphorization to ultimately synthesize FeP-CoP_(3)bimetallic phosphides.By combining atomic orbital theory and theoretical calculations(density functional theory),the results reveal the successful modulation of electronic orbitals in FeP-CoP_(3)bimetallic phosphides,which are synthesized from MOF on MOF structure.The synergistic impact of the metal center Co species and the phase conjugation of both kinds of MOFs are responsible for this regulatory phenomenon.Therefore,the catalyst demonstrates excellent properties,demonstrating HER 81 mV(η10)in a 1.0 mol L^(−1)KOH solution and OER 239 mV(η50)low overpotentials.The FeP-CoP_(3)linked dual electrode alkaline batteries,which are bifunctional electrocatalysts,have a good electrocatalytic ability and may last for 50 h.They require just 1.49 V(η50)for total water breakdown.Through this technique,the electrical structure of electrocatalysts may be altered to increase catalytic activity.

Heterostructured bimetallic phosphide nanowire arrays with latticetorsion interfaces for efficient overall water splitting

Designing cost-effective and high-efficiency electrocatalysts is critical to the water splitting performance during hydrogen generation.Herein,we have developed Fe_(2)P-Co_(2)P heterostructure nanowire arrays with excellent lattice torsions and grain boundaries for highly efficient water splitting.According to the microstructural investigations and theoretical calculations,the lattice torsion interface not only contributes to the exposure of more active sites but also effectively tunes the adsorption energy of hydrogen/oxygen intermediates via the accumulation of charge redistribution.As a result,the Fe_(2)P-Co_(2)P heterostructure nanowire array exhibits exceptional bifunctional catalytic activity with overpotentials of 65 and 198 mV at 10 mA cm^(-2) for hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions,respectively.Moreover,the Fe_(2)P-Co_(2)P/NF-assembled electrolyzer can deliver 10 mA cm^(-2) at an ultralow voltage of1.51 V while resulting in a high solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency of 19.8%in the solar-driven water electrolysis cell.

Enhancing water-dissociation kinetics and optimizing intermediates adsorption free energy of cobalt phosphide via high-valence Zr incorporating for alkaline water electrolysis

Developing high-efficiency electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction(HER) and oxygen evolution reaction(OER) is required to enhance the sluggish kinetics of water dissociation and optimize the adsorption free energy of reaction intermediates.Herein,we tackle this challenge by incorporating high-valence Zr into CoP(ZrxCo_(1-x)P),which significantly accelerates the elementary steps of water electrolysis.Theoretical calculations indicate that the appropriate Zr incorporation effectively expedites the sluggish H2O dissociation kinetics and optimizes the adsorption energy of reaction intermediates for boosting the alkaline water electrolysis.These are confirmed by the experimental results of Zr_(0.06)Co_(0.94)P catalyst that delivers exceptional electrochemical activity.The overpotentials at the current density of 10 mA cm^(-2)(j10) are only 62(HER) and 240 mV(OER) in alkaline media.Furthermore,the Zr_(0.06)Co_(0.94)P/CC‖Zr_(0.06)Co_(0.94)P/CC system exhibits superior overall water splitting activity(1.53 V/j10),surpassing most of the reported bifunctional catalysts.This high-valence Zr incorporation and material design methods explore new avenues for realizing high-performance non-noble metal electrocatalysts.

Unveiling the Optimal Interfacial Synergy of Plasma-Modulated Trimetallic Mn-Ni-Co Phosphides:Tailoring Deposition Ratio for Complementary Water Splitting

Designing highly active,durable,and nonprecious metal-based bifunctional electrocatalysts for overall water electrolysis is of urgent scientific importance to realize the sustainable hydrogen production,which remains a grand challenge.Herein,an innovative approach is demonstrated to synthesize flower-like 3D homogenous trimetallic Mn,Ni,Co phosphide catalysts directly on nickel foam via electrodeposition followed by plasma phosphidation.The electrochemical activity of the catalysts with varying Mn:Ni:Co ratios is assessed to identify the optimal composition,demonstrating that the equimolar trimetallic phosphide yields an outstanding HER catalytic performance with a current density of 10 mA cm^(-2) at an ultra-low overpotential of~14 mV,outperforming the best reported electrocatalysts.This is asserted by the DFT calculations,revealing strong interaction of the metals and the P atom,resulting in enhanced water activation and optimized G_(H)^(*)values for the HER process.Moreover,this optimal composition appreciably catalyzes the OER by exposing more intrinsic active species in-situ formed on the catalyst surface during the OER.Therefore,the Mn_(1)-Ni_(1)-Co_(1)-P-(O)/NF catalyst exhibits a decreased overpotential of~289 mV at 10 mA cm^(-2).More importantly,the electrocatalyst sustains perfect durability up to 48 h at a current density of 10 mA cm^(-2) and continued 5000 cycling stability for both HER and OER.Meanwhile,the assembled MNC-P/NF||MNC-P/NF full water electrolyzer system attains an extremely low cell voltage of 1.48 V at 10 mA cm^(-2).Significantly,the robust stability of the overall system results in a remarkable current retention of~96%after a continuous 50-h run.Therefore,this study provides a facile design and a scalable construction of superb bifunctional ternary MNC-phosphide electrocatalysts for efficient electrochemical energy production systems.

One dimensional nickel phosphide polymorphic heterostructure as carbon-free functional support loading single-atom iridium for promoted electrocatalytic water oxidation

Although conducting materials such as carbon nanotube and carbon fiber paper(CFP)have been extensively employed as support of electrocatalytic active sites,most of them are of poor catalytic functionality by themselves and undesirable stability during strong acid/alkaline environments or oxidation process.Here we report a novel one-dimensional(1D)nickel phosphide polymorphic heterostructure(denoted as NPPH)to work as one effective carbon-free functional support for loading of single-atom Ir water oxidation electrocatalyst.Specifically,the NPPH composed of both Ni12P5and Ni2P phases is not only active for robust alkaline water oxidation but also is of good stability and hydrophilicity for favorable loading of single-atom dispersed iridium.The NPPH supported single-atom Ir electrocatalyst(Ir/NPPH)is found to exhibit remarkably superior water oxidation activity with respect to the NPPH itself or CFP supported single-atom Ir catalyst(Ir/CFP),demonstrating the synergetic promotion effect between NPPH and single-atom Ir catalyst.Furthermore,the NPPH supported single-atom Ir catalyst can bear alkaline water oxidation for over 120 h at current density of 50 mA cm^(-2).The NPPH developed here is expected as functional support to composite with other water oxidation catalysts,as may be an alternative strategy of developing highly efficient carbon-free electrocatalysts.

A Practical Backside Technology for Indium Phosphide MMICs

A wet etching process for backside via holes suitable for use on InP MMICs technologies is developed for indium phosphide substrate.PMMA is used to mount InP wafer onto glass carrier.Spattered Ta film is utilized as etch mask.HCl+H 3PO 4 solution realised a etch until a depth of 100μm.It is demonstrated that the wet etching backside process is controllable with large latitudes.

Effect of nickel phosphide nanoparticles crystallization on hydrogen evolution reaction catalytic performance

In order to investigate the effect of nickel phosphide nanoparticles’ （Ni-P NPs） crystallization on hydrogen evolution reaction （HER） catalytic performance, amorphous Ni-P NPs and crystalline Ni12P5 were synthesized by a simple and low-cost autocatalytic reduction method and heat treatment process. The result of electrochemical tests shows that crystalline Ni12P5 has much higher HER catalytic activity than the amorphous one. X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy revealed that Ni？P bond formed during crystallization, making Ni positively charged and P negatively charged. This charged nature of Ni12P5 is similar to [NiFe] hydrogenase and its analogous, which make the removal of H2 less energy-cost.

Recent developments in metal phosphide and sulfide electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution reaction

Oxygen evolution reaction(OER),as an important half‐reaction involved in water splitting,has been intensely studied since the last century.Transition metal phosphide and sulfide‐based compounds have attracted increasing attention as active OER catalysts due to their excellent physical and chemical characters,and massive efforts have been devoted to improving the phosphide and sulfide‐based materials with better activity and stability in recent years.In this review,the recent progress on phosphide and sulfide‐based OER electrocatalysts in terms of chemical properties,synthetic methodologies,catalytic performances evaluation and improvement strategy is reviewed.The most accepted reaction pathways as well as the thermodynamics and electrochemistry of the OER are firstly introduced in brief,followed by a summary of the recent research and optimization strategy of phosphide and sulfide‐based OER electrocatalysts.Finally,some mechanistic studies of the active phase of phosphide and sulfide‐based compounds are discussed to give insight into the nature of active catalytic sites.It is expected to indicate guidance for further improving the performances of phosphide and sulfide‐based OER electrocatalysts.

Preparation, Characterization, Hydrodesulfurization and Hydrodenitrogenation Activities of Alumina-supported Tungsten Phosphide Catalysts

Two series of WP/Al2O3 catalyst precursors with WP mass loading in the range 18.5%—37.1% were prepared using the impregnation method and mixing method, respectively, and the catalysts were then obtained by temperature-programmed reduction of supported tungsten phosphate (precursor of WP/Al2O3 catatlysts) in H2 at 650℃ for 4h. The catalysts were characterized by XRD, BET, TG/DTA , XPS and 31P MAS-NMR. The activities of these catalysts were tested in the hydrodenitrogenation (HDN) of pyridine and hydrodesulfurization (HDS) of thiophene at 340℃ and 3.0MPa. The results showed that owing to the stronger interaction of the support with the active species, the precursor of WP/Al2O3 catalyst was more difficultly phosphided and a greater amount of W spe- cies was in a high valence state W6+ on the surface of the catalyst prepared by the impregnation method than that by the mixing method. 31P MAS-NMR results indicated that 31P shift from 85% H3PO4 of 2.55×10-4 for WP and 2.57 ×10-4 for WP/γ-Al2O3 catalysts prepared by mixing method. Such WP/Al2O3 catalysts showed higher HDN activi- ties and lower HDS activities than those prepared by the impregnation method under the same loading of WP. WP/γ-Al2O3 catalysts with weak interaction between support and active species were favorable for HDN reaction while the WP/γ-Al2O3 catalysts with strong interaction were favorable for HDS reaction.

Metal-organic framework-derived phosphide nanomaterials for electrochemical applications

Because of features,such as adjustable structures,high porosity,and high crystallinity,metal-organic frameworks(MOFs)deservedly have received considerable attention.Nevertheless,there is still room for improvements in the electrical conductivity and chemical stability of some MOFs,because of which they cannot be utilized as electrode materials.Fortunately,MOF derivatives have received widespread attention in recent years,especially phosphide materials,which are widely used in practical applications because of their outstanding conductivity,excellent specific surface area,and standout charge mobility.In this review,the latest developments of MOF-derived phosphides in electrocatalysis related to energy,including the excellent performance in terms of electrochemical energy storage and ingenious strategies,and diversified synthetic approaches are emphasized and summarized.Additionally,the arduous task and feasible proposals of MOF-derived phosphides are also discussed.

Strategies on improving the electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution performances of metal phosphides

Among the sustainable energy sources,hydrogen is the one most promising for alleviating the pollution issues related to the usage of conventional fuels,as it can be produced in an efficient and eco-friendly way via electrocatalytic water splitting.The hydrogen evolution reaction(HER,a half-reaction of water splitting)plays a pivotal role in decreasing the price and increasing the catalytic efficiency of hydrogen production and is efficiently promoted by metal phosphides in different electrolytes.Herein,we summarize the recent advances in the development of metal phosphides as HER electrocatalysts,focus on their synthesis(post-treatment,in situ generation,and electrodeposition methods)and the enhancement of their electrocatalytic activity(via elemental doping,interface and vacancy engineering,construction of specific supports and nanostructures,and the design of bior polymetallic phosphides),and highlight the crucial issues and challenges of future development.

Metal-organic frameworks derived transition metal phosphides for electrocatalytic water splitting

It is critical to synthesize high-efficiency electrocatalysts to boost the performance of water splitting to meet the requirements of industrial applications. Metal-organic frameworks(MOFs) can function as ideal molecular platforms for the design of highly reactive transition metal phosphides(TMPs), a kind of candidates for high-efficiently electrocatalytic water splitting. The intrinsic activity of the electrocatalysts can be greatly improved via modulating the electronic structure of the catalytic center through the MOF precursors/templates. Moreover, the carbon layer converted in-situ by the organic ligands can not only protect the TMPs from being degraded in the harsh electrochemical environments, but also avoid agglomeration of the catalysts, thereby promoting their activities and stabilities. Furthermore,heteroatom-containing ligands can incorporate N, S or P, etc. atoms into the carbon matrixes after conversion, regulating the coordination microenvironments of the active centers as well as their electronic structures. In this review, we first summarized the latest developments in MOF-derived TMPs by the unique advantages in metal, organic ligand, and morphology regulations for electrocatalytic water splitting. Secondly, we concluded the critical scientific issues currently facing for designing state-of-the-art TMP-based electrocatalysts. Finally, we presented an outlook on this research area, encompassing electrocatalyst construction, catalytic mechanism research, etc.

Recent advances of metal phosphides for Li-S chemistry

Li-S batteries have been considered as one of advanced next-generation energy storage systems owing to their remarkable theoretical capacity(1672 m Ah g^(-1))and high energy density(2600 Wh kg^(-1)).However,critical issues,mainly pertaining to lithium polysulfide shuttle and slow sulfur reaction kinetics,have posed a fatal threat to the electrochemical performances of Li-S batteries.The situation is even worse for high sulfur-loaded and flexible cathodes,which are the essential components for practical Li-S batteries.In response,the use of metal compounds as electrocatalysts in Li-S systems have been confirmed as an effective strategy to date.Particularly,recent years have witnessed many progresses in phosphidesoptimized Li-S chemistry.This has been motivated by the superior electron conductivity and high electrocatalytic activity of phosphides.In this tutorial review,we offer a systematic summary of active metal phosphides as promoters for Li-S chemistry,aiming at helping to understanding the working mechanism of phosphide electrocatalysts and guiding the construction of advanced Li-S batteries.