Development of an enhanced online tritium monitoring system using plastic scintillation fiber array

Tritium,a radioactive nuclide discharged by nuclear power plants,poses challenges for removal.Continuous online monitoring of tritium in water is crucial for real-time radiation data,given its predominant existence in the environment as water.This paper presents the design,simulation,and development of a tritium monitoring device utilizing a plastic scintillation fiber(PSF)array.Experimental validation confirmed the device’s detection efficiency and minimum detectable activity.The recorded detection efficiency of the device is 1.6×10^(-3),which exceeds the theoretically simulated value of 4×10^(-4)by four times.Without shielding,the device can achieve a minimum detectable activity of 3165 Bq L^(-1)over a 1600-second measurement duration.According to simulation and experimental results,enhancing detection efficiency is possible by increasing the number and length of PSFs and implementing rigorous shielding measures.Additionally,reducing the diameter of PSFs can also improve detection efficiency.The minimum detectable activity of the device can be further reduced using the aforementioned methods.

Relationships between ionospheric parameters derived from ionosonde observations and characteristics of post-sunset GHz scintillation during high solar activities(2012−2013)at Sanya(18.3°N,109.6°E),China

In this study,we present characteristics of post-sunset GHz scintillation occurrence and their correlations with ionospheric parameters derived from ionosonde observations in high solar activity years(2012−2013)of solar cycle 24 at Sanya(18.3°N,109.6°E;dip lat.:12.8°N),China.The analyzed data include the F_(2)-layer’s critical frequency(foF_(2)),peak height(h_(m)F_(2)),and minimum virtual height(h’F),as well as the scale height around the F_(2)-layer peak(H_(m)),and virtual height(h’F_(5))and true height(hF_(5))measured at 5 MHz.We have investigated relationships between the equinoctial asymmetry of these scintillations and these ionospheric parameters.In addition,we calculate the growth rates of Rayleigh−Taylor instability on the basis of the ionosonde measurements and theoretical models,respectively.We find that the equinoctial asymmetry of scintillation onset time is associated with the scale length of the vertical electron density gradient(L),which has been shown to affect the growth of Rayleigh−Taylor instability at the bottom of the F-layer.The seasonal variations of foF_(2),H_(m)and scale length of vertical electron density gradient appear to cause the seasonal variations of scintillation occurrence;the equinoctial asymmetry of scintillation occurrence rate over low latitudes appears to be related to background electron density and vertical drifts in the F-layer around time of sunset.Further study is required to explain the observed correlational weakness in low latitudes between scintillation strength,represented by the daily maximum S4,and daily maximum values of foF_(2),h_(m)F_(2),h’F,H_(m),and also the drifts.

Analysis of GPS ionospheric scintillation signal amplitude fading characteristics at low latitude

The received satellite signal amplitude is attenuated greatly due to the strong ionospheric scintillation for lowlatitude regions, which causes the GPS tracking loop＇s loss of lock, the positioning errors to increase, and navigation to be interrupted. To solve the above problems, a novel signal processing algorithm is proposed based on the GPS L1 software receiver during strong ionospheric scintillation using the multi-channel intermediate frequency（IF） data sampling system. Tens of thousands of fading events are obtained based on the signal intensity measurement. The amplitude fading characteristics in the lowlatitude region are analyzed,including fading duration, time separation between fades and the numbers of signal intensity fading events. The fading thresholds are set to be 15 and 10 dB, respectively. The main fading time is very short in- 15 dB fading threshold, which generally is less than 20 ms. The main time separation between fades is less than 2 s in a single one-hour period from the time 23： 00 to 24： 00. Therefore, it has the characteristic of a short reacquisition time for the receiver designed to reduce the probability of simultaneous loss of lock for some satellites.Subsequently, the acquisition, tracking and PVT（position,velocity and time） calculations are completed by the customdesigned software receiver. The results show that the impact analysis of ionospheric scintillation on GPS amplitude attenuation in the lowlatitude region is helpful for designing the advanced tracking algorithm and to improve the robustness and accuracy of the GPS receiver.

Models for amplitude fluctuation of underwater acoustic narrow band signal based on modified modal scintillation index

A self-normalized statistic the modified modal scintillation index MMSI is proposed and defined as the variance of the modulus of modal excitation normalized by the square of its expected value over some observation intervals.It is proved in an analytical form that the MMSI is a depth dependent signature and independent of the source level and the source range under the condition of the ideal waveguide while the classical modal scintillation index MSI depends on both the source level and the source range.The MSI and the MMSI in the Pekeris waveguide at 70 Hz are simulated with different source levels and source ranges by the Kraken normal mode model.The simulation results are consistent with the theoretical deduction.The MMSI probability density functions PDFs of different normal modes for surface and submerged sources are calculated using the mode filtering methods with the same variations of vertical motions.It is indicated that the PDFs can be used to separate the submerged and the surface sources except for the fourth mode.

Simulation study on performance optimization of a prototype scintillation detector for the GRANDProto35 experiment

As a proposed detector,the giant radio array for neutrino detection(GRAND)is primarily designed to discover and study the origin of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays,with ultra-high-energy neutrinos presenting the main method for detecting ultra-high-energy cosmic rays and their sources.The main principle is to detect radio emissions generated by ultra-high-energy neutrinos interacting with the atmosphere as they travel.GRAND is the largest neutrino detection array to be built in China.GRANDProto35,as the first stage of the GRAND experiment,is a coincidence array composed of radio antennas and a scintillation detector,the latter of which,as a traditional detector,is used to perform cross-validation with radio detection,thus verifying the radio detection efficiency and enabling study of the background exclusion method.This study focused on the implementation of the optimization simulation and experimental testing of the performance of the prototype scintillation detector used in GRANDProto35.A package based on GEANT4 was used to simulate the details of the scintillation detector,including the optical properties of its materials,the height of the light guide box,and position inhomogeneity.The surface of the scintillator and the reflective materials used in the detector was optimized,and the influence of light guide heights and position inhomogeneity on the energy and time resolutions of the detector was studied.According to the simulation study,the number of scintillator photoelectrons increased when changing from the polished surface to the ground surface,with the appropriate design height for the light guide box being 50 cm and the appropriate design area for the scintillator being 0.5 m^(2).The performance of the detector was tested in detail through a coincidence experiment,and the test results showed that the number of photoelectrons collected in the detector was$84 with a time resolution of~1 ns,indicating good performance.The simulation results were consistent with those obtained from the tests,which also verified the reliability of the simulation software.These studies provided a full understanding of the performance of the scintillation detector and guidance for the subsequent operation and analysis of the GRANDProto35 experimental array.

Effects of Annealing Treatments on Luminescence and Scintillation Properties of Ce:Lu_3Al_5O_(12) Crystal Grown by Czochralski Method

Lu3Al5O12 single crystals grown in pure N2 atmosphere by Czochralski method were annealed in oxidizing atmosphere （air）and reducing atmosphere （H2 ＋ N2）, respectively. Effects of annealing treatments on luminescence and scintillation properties of the crystals were investigated. The crystal annealed in air showed the highest luminescence intensity under blue light or vacuum ultraviolet excitation in comparison with that annealed in reducing flux or the as-grown crystal. Under X-ray excitation, crystal annealed in reducing atmosphere had the lowest light yield, and crystal annealed in air had the fastest decay time under ^137Cs 662 keV γ-ray excitation. Different annealing treatments resulted in different luminescence and scintillation properties, which might related with oxygen vacancies or defect existing in the crystals.

Scintillation of partially coherent Gaussian–Schell model beam propagation in slant atmospheric turbulence considering inner- and outer-scale effects

Based on the modified Rytov theory and the international telecommunication union-radio （ITU-R） slant atmospheric structure constant model, the uniform scintillation index of partially coherent Gaussian-Schell model （GSM） beam propa- gation in the slant path is derived from weak- to strong-turbulence regions considering inner- and outer-scale effects. The effects of wavelength of beams and inner- and outer-scale of turbulence on scintillation are analyzed numerically. Compar- ison between the scintillation of GSM beams under the von Karman spectrum and that of beams under the modified Hill spectrum is made. The results obtained show that the scintillation index obtained under the von Karman spectrum is smaller than that under the modified Hill spectrum. This study can find theory bases for the experiments of the partially coherent GSM beam propagation through atmospheric turbulence.

Performance of a plastic scintillation fiber dosimeter based on different photoelectric devices

The photoelectric device of a scintillation dosimeter converts photons produced by radiation into an electrical signal.Its features directly determine the overall performance of the dosimeter.For a plastic scintillation fiber dosimeter(PSFD)with a current readout mode,systematic studies of the stability and light-dose response were performed for the photomultiplier tube(PMT),silicon photomultiplier(SiPM),avalanche photodiode(APD),and photodiode(PD).The temperature stability,long-term stability,repeatability,signal-to-noise ratio(SNR),and current dose response of the PSFD with the abovementioned photoelectric devices were studied using a pulsed LED light source and the Small Animal Radiation Therapy platform.An exponential relationship between the dark/ne current and temperature was obtained for all the devices.I is shown that the APD is the most sensitive device to temperature,with a current dependence on temperature reaching 6.5%C^(-1)at room temperature,whereas for the other devices this dependence is always<0:6%C^(-1).In terms of long-term stability,the net current of PD can change by up to 4%when working continuously for 8 h and 2%when working intermittently for 32 h,whereas for the other devices,the changes are all<1%.For the dose response,the PMT and SiPM exhibit excellent linear responses and SNRs within the range of 0.1-60 Gy/min For the PSFD with a current readout mode,the performance of the PMT and SiPM is concluded to be better than that of the other devices in the study.In particular,the SiPM,which has a compact size,low bias voltage,and antimagnetic interference,has great advantages for further applications.

Preparation of Gd_2O_2S:Pr Scintillation Ceramics by Pressureless Reaction Sintering Method

Fabrication of Gd2O2S：Pr scintillation ceramics by 2Gd2O3.（Gd,Pr）2（SO4）3.mH2O precursor was made Gd2O3, Pr6O11 and H2SO4 as the starting materials pressureless reaction sintering was investigated. The by hydrothermal reaction using commercially available Then single phase Gd2O2SO4：Pr powder was obtained by calcining the precursor at 750℃ for 2 h. The Gd2O2SO4：Pr powder compacts can be sintered to single phase Gd2O2S：Pr ceramics with a relative density of 99% and mean grain size of 30um at 1750℃ for 2 h in flowing hydrogen atmosphere. Densification and microstructural development of the Gd2O2S：Pr ceramics were examined. Luminescence spectra of the Gd2O2S：Pr ceramic under 309 nm UV excitation and X-ray excitation show a green emission at 511 nm as the most prominent peak, which corresponds to the ^3p0-3H4 transition of Pr^3＋ ions.

Electrolytic enrichment method for tritium determination in the Arctic Ocean using liquid scintillation counter

A method of measuring the tritium in seawater based on electrolytic enrichment and ultra-low background liquid scintillation counting techniques was established.The different factors influencing the detection limit were studied,including the counting time,the electrolytic volume of the seawater samples,the selection of background water,scintillation solution and their ratio.After optimizing the parameters and electrolyzing 350 mL volume of samples,the detection limit of the method was as low as 0.10 Bq/L.In order to test the optimization of system for this method,of the 84 seawater samples collected from the Arctic Ocean we measured,92%were above the detection limit(the activity of this samples ranged from 0.10 Bq/L to 1.44 Bq/L with an average of(0.30±0.24)Bq/L).In future research,if we need to accurately measure the tritium activity in samples,the volume of the electrolytic samples will be increased to further reduce the minimum detectable activity.

Improve the Efficiency of Scintillation Detectors Using Reflectors Based on Photonic Crystals Arrays

In the present work, we designed the new type of photonic crystals (PCs) as reflectors. Reflections from single layer of Al2O3/MgO PC help us in recapturing the light that does escape from the scintillation surface. Photonic crystals in one dimension array of Al2O3 and MgO with silver at periodicities N = 1, 2 and 3 were used as a reflector around the surface of the scintillation volume. Scintillation detectors are widely used in nuclear medicine. The efficiency is an important parameter for characterizing the capability of the detectors. The counting efficiency of the detectors depends on the light emission induced by radiation. The light then was converted by the photomultiplier tube into electrical pulses. The efficiency may increase by an amount of 1.64% if MgO-Ag photonic crystals are used at periodicity N = 1 as a reflector.

Spectroscopic Properties of Ce:YAP Scintillation Crystal Grown by Temperature Gradient Technique

Spectroscopic properties of Ce-doped yttrium orthoaluminate （Ce：YA1O3 or Ce：YAP） crystals gown by temperature gradient technique （TGT） were investigated, and the effects of the growth conditions on the properties were analyzed. Methods of optical absorption （OA）, photoluminescence （PL）, photoluminescence decay （PLD）, X-my excited luminescence （XL） and cathodeluminescence （CL） were used in these investigations. The results showed that the absorption band peak at 202,394 and 532 nm originated from F and F^＋ color center induced by the weak reducing growth atmosphere, green emission band near 500 nm derived from Ce3^＋ -Ce^3＋ pairs and band at 650 - 850 nm from some unintentional impurity in crystals.

Analysis of spectrum characteristics of optical scintillation in stack gas flow

Based on the analysis of spectrum characteristics of intensity fluctuations while light beams pass through stack gas flow in an industrial setting, this paper puts emphasis upon discussing the spectrum of optical intensity fluctuations by the variety of particle concentration in stack gas flow. This paper also gives the primary theoretical explanation of the measurement results in the stack of coal-fired utility boilers. Meanwhile, the cross-correlation formula is given as the theoretical basis of velocity measurement by using particle concentration scintillation.

Theoretical analysis of stack gas emission velocity measurement by optical scintillation

Theoretical analysis for an online measurement of the stack gas flow velocity based on the optical scintillation method with a structure of two parallel optical paths is performed. The causes of optical scintillation in a stack are first introduced. Then, the principle of flow velocity measurement and its mathematical expression based on cross correlation of the optical scintillation are presented. The field test results show that the flow velocity measured by the proposed technique in this article is consistent with the value tested by the Pitot tube. It verifies the effectiveness of this method. Finally, by use of the structure function of logarithmic light intensity fluctuations, the theoretical explanation of optical scintillation spec- tral characteristic in low frequency is given. The analysis of the optical scintillation spectrum provides the basis for the measurement of the stack gas flow velocity and particle concentration simultaneously.

Further analysis of scintillation index for a laser beam propagating through moderate-to-strong non-Kolmogorov turbulence based on generalized effective atmospheric spectral model

A new expression of the scintillation index （SI） for a Gaussian-beam wave propagating through moderate-to-strong non-Kolmogorov turbulence is derived, using a generalized effective atmospheric spectrum and the extended Rytov approx- imation theory. Finite inner and outer scale parameters and high wave number ＂bump＂ are considered in the spectrum with a generalized spectral power law in the range of 3-4, instead of the fixed classical Kolmogorov power law of 11/3. The obtained SI expression is then used to analyze the effects of the spectral power law and the inner scale and outer scale on SI under various non-Kolmogorov fluctuation conditions. These results will be useful in future investigations of optical wave propagation through atmospheric turbulence.

Monte Carlo simulation of scintillation crystal detector for formation element logging

Formation elements logging is a neutron gamma spectroscopy logging technique used to acquire the content of elements and minerals by recording the gamma ray produced by the reaction of neutron and elemental nucleus in the formation. It has a wide usage in discriminating complex lithology and evaluating unconventional reservoir. The Monte Carlo simulation model of formation elements logging tool is established in this paper, with which the effects of tool parameters including the material and length of the scintillation crystal and source spacing on logging responses are modeled. The results show that the energy response of LaBr_3: Ce crystal is better than others, and the detection efficiency increases with the crystal length but decrease with source spacing. The above results may be used as a reference for optimizing the tool structure design.

Scintillation index of optical wave propagating in turbulent atmosphere

A concise expression of the scintillation index is proposed for a plane optical wave and a spherical optical wave both propagating in a turbulent atmosphere with a zero inner scale and a finite inner scale under an arbitrary fluctuation condition. The expression is based on both the results in the Rytov approximation under a weak fluctuation condition and the numerical results in a strong fluctuation regime. The maximum value of the scintillation index and its corresponding Rytov index are evaluated. These quantities are affected by the ratio of the turbulence inner scale to the Fresnel size.

A measure of ionospheric irregularities:zonal velocity and its implications for L-band scintillation at low-latitudes

We estimate the zonal drift velocity of small-scale ionospheric irregularities at low latitude by leveraging the spaced-receivers technique applied to two GNSS receivers for scintillation monitoring installed along the magnetic parallel passing in Presidente Prudente(Brazil,magnetic latitude 12.8°S).The investigated ionospheric sector is ideal to study small-scale irregularities,being located close to the expected position of the southern crest of the equatorial ionospheric anomaly.The measurement campaign took place between September 2013 and February 2014,i.e.equinox and summer solstice seasons under solar maximum,during which the probability of formation of small-scale irregularities is expected to maximize.We found that the hourly average of the velocity increases up to 135 m/s right after the local sunset at ionospheric altitudes and then smoothly decreases in the next hours.Such measurements are in agreement with independent estimations of the velocity made by the Incoherent Scatter Radar located at the Jicamarca Radio Observatory(magnetic latitude 0.1°N),by the Boa Vista Ionosonde(magnetic latitude 12.0°N),and by applying a recently-developed empirical regional short-term forecasting model.Additionally,we investigated the relationship with the percentage occurrence of amplitude scintillation;we report that it is exponentially dependent on the zonal velocity of the irregularities that cause it.

Aperture-averaged scintillation index and fade statistics in weak oceanic turbulence

With the rapid demand for underwater optical communication(UOC), studies of UOC degradation by oceanic turbulence have attached increasing attention worldwide and become a research hot-spot in recent years. Previous studies used a simplified and inaccurate oceanic turbulence spectrum, in which the eddy diffusivity ratio between temperature and salinity is assumed to be unity and the outer scale of turbulence is assumed to be infinite. However, both assumptions are not true in most of the actual marine environments. In this paper, based on the Rytov theory in weak turbulence, we derive analytical expressions of "the aperture-averaged scintillation index"(SI) for both plane and spherical waves, which can clearly demonstrate how SI is influenced by several key factors in UOC. Then, typical fade statistics of the UOC system in weak turbulence is discussed including the probability of fade, the expected number of fades per time, the mean fade time,signal-to-noise ratio and bit error rate. Our results show that spherical wave is preferable in the UOC system in weak turbulence compared to plane wave, and the aperture-averaged effect has a significant impact on UOC system's performance.Our results can be used to determine those key parameters for designing the UOC system over reasonable ranges.

Carrier frequency disturbance distributions on GPS during equatorial ionospheric scintillation

In the equatorial region,deep amplitude fading in global positioning system(GPS)signals frequently occurs during the strong ionospheric scintillation,it can lead to the loss of lock in GPS carrier tracking loops,and result in increased positioning error and even navigation interruption.The relationships between amplitude scintillation indices and detrended carrier frequency are investigated,based on GPS L1 C/A signals during the last peak of the solar cycle at the low latitude site of São Josédos Campos,Brazil(23.2S,45.9W)from 2013 to 2015.Corresponding mathematic model of the probability distribution function is built for the first time to provide statistical analysis on the above relationships.The results show that the standard carrier frequencies reveal an almost linear relation with the amplitude scintillation indices.Moreover,the frequency widths of detrended frequency are proportional to levels of amplitude scintillation when the value of the peak probability is lower than the corresponding boundary.A conclusion can be drawn that different levels of amplitude scintillation will influence the fluctuation of the carrier frequency.The analysis will provide useful guidance to set the receiver’s bandwidth with respect to the different scintillation levels and design the advanced tracking algorithms to improve the robustness and precision of the GPS receiver.