Performance-based seismic design of nonstructural building components:The next frontier of earthquake engineering

With the development and implementation of performance-based earthquake engineering,harmonization of performance levels between structural and nonstructural components becomes vital. Even if the structural components of a building achieve a continuous or immediate occupancy performance level after a seismic event,failure of architectural,mechanical or electrical components can lower the performance level of the entire building system. This reduction in performance caused by the vulnerability of nonstructural components has been observed during recent earthquakes worldwide. Moreover,nonstructural damage has limited the functionality of critical facilities,such as hospitals,following major seismic events. The investment in nonstructural components and building contents is far greater than that of structural components and framing. Therefore,it is not surprising that in many past earthquakes,losses from damage to nonstructural components have exceeded losses from structural damage. Furthermore,the failure of nonstructural components can become a safety hazard or can hamper the safe movement of occupants evacuating buildings,or of rescue workers entering buildings. In comparison to structural components and systems,there is relatively limited information on the seismic design of nonstructural components. Basic research work in this area has been sparse,and the available codes and guidelines are usually,for the most part,based on past experiences,engineering judgment and intuition,rather than on objective experimental and analytical results. Often,design engineers are forced to start almost from square one after each earthquake event: to observe what went wrong and to try to prevent repetitions. This is a consequence of the empirical nature of current seismic regulations and guidelines for nonstructural components. This review paper summarizes current knowledge on the seismic design and analysis of nonstructural building components,identifying major knowledge gaps that will need to be filled by future research. Furthermore,considering recent trends in earthquake engineering,the paper explores how performance-based seismic design might be conceived for nonstructural components,drawing on recent developments made in the field of seismic design and hinting at the specific considerations required for nonstructural components.

Peak displacement patterns for the performance-based seismic design of steel eccentrically braced frames

Performance-based seismic design(PBSD) aims to assess structures at different damage states. Since damage can be directly associated to displacements, seismic design with consideration of displacement seems to be logical. In this study, simple formulae to estimate the peak floor displacement patterns of eccentrically braced frames(EBFs) at different performance levels subjected to earthquake ground motions are proposed. These formulae are applicable in a PBSD and especially in direct displacement-based design(DDBD). Parametric study is conducted on a group of 30 EBFs under a set of 15 far field and near field accelerograms which they scaled to different amplitudes to adapt various performance levels. The results of thousands of nonlinear dynamic analyses of EBFs have been post-processed by nonlinear regression analysis in order to recognize the major parameters that influence the peak displacement pattern of these frames. Results show that suggested displacement patterns have relatively good agreement with those acquired by an exact nonlinear dynamic analysis.

Ground Motion and Site Effects on Performance-Based Design

The objective of Performance-Based Earthquake Engineering （PBEE） is the analysis of performance objectives with a specified annual probability of exceedance. Increasingly undesirable performance is caused by increasing levels of strong ground motion having decreasing annual probabilities of exceedance. The development of this methodology includes three steps： （1） evaluation of the distribution of ground motion at a site; （2） evaluation of the distribution of system response; （3） evaluation of the probability of exceeding decision variables within a given time period, given appropriate damage measures. The work has taken a systematic approach to determine the impact of increasing levels of detail in site characterization on the accuracy of ground motion and site effects predictions. Complementary studies have investigated the use of the following models for evaluating site effects： （1） amplification factors defined on the basis of generalized site categories, （2） one-dimensional ground response analysis, and （3） two-dimensional ground response analysis for surface topography on ground motion. The paper provides a brief synthesis of ground motion and site effects analysis procedures within a Performance-Based Design framework. It focuses about the influence on the evaluation of site effects in some active regions by different shear waves velocity measurements Down Hole （D-H）, Cross Hole （C-H）, Seismic Dilatometer Marchetti Test （SDMT） and by different variation of shear modulus and damping ratio with strain level and depth from different laboratory dynamic tests for soil characterization： Resonant Column Test （RCT）, Cyclic Loading Torsional Shear Test （CLTST）.

Parameter Optimization of Nose Landing Gear Considering Both Take-off and Landing Performance of Catapult Take-off Carrier-Based Aircraft

Optimization of the parameters of landing gear systems with double-stage air springs of catapult take-off carrier-based aircraft is here studied based on the mathematical equations of the classic dual mass spring-damper dynamic model.Certain standards for both take-off and landing performance are put forward.The contradictory factors between take-off and landing processes are analyzed.The optimization of oil in the pin area and the area near the rear oil hole is performed.Then these optimized parameters are used to assess the influence of the initial pressure of the low chamber,the ratio of the high chamber to the low chamber,and the tire inflation pressure on the performance of arresting landing and catapult take-off.The influences of these parameters on carrier-based aircraft and the aircraft-carrier on aircraft catapult take-off is also assessed.Based on the results of the simulation,respective take-off criteria must be drafted considering different types of aircraft and different take-off load cases,all of which must be matched to parameters relevant to catapult take-off.

Development of Performance-Based Tunnel Evaluation Methodology and Performance Evaluation of Existing Railway Tunnels

The concept of performance-based design, which mainly focuses on mechanical performance, has become the international standard, as in the case for ISO. The standardization of tunnel design has not been achieved because it requires integration of separate specialized fields, such as geotechnical engineering, structural engineering and concrete engineering. It is also required to clarify performance-based criteria for tunnel structures to suit specific use purposes (objectives), establish the concept of survey, planning, design, construction and maintenance based on such criteria, and develop proper management systems for operation and maintenance to suit specific tunnel use purposes. To this end, it is vital to develop a methodology for evaluating and verifying the performance of existing tunnels. This paper presents a new concept of performance requirements for tunnel structures and describes the method of quantitatively evaluating the total performance of existing tunnels in relation to the required performance, assuming the total performance to be based on the Analysis Hierarchy Process.

An evaluation of force-based design vs.direct displacement-based design of jointed precast post-tensioned wall systems

The unique features of jointed post-tensioned wall systems, which include minimum structural damage and re-centering capability when subjected to earthquake lateral loads, are the result of using unbonded post-tensioning to attach the walls to the foundation, along with employing energy dissipating shear connectors between the walls. Using acceptance criteria defined in terms of inter-story drift, residual drift, and floor acceleration, this study presents a multiplelevel performance-based seismic evaluation of two five-story unbonded post-tensioned jointed precast wall systems. The design and analysis of these two wall systems, established as the direct displacement-based and force-based solutions for a prototype building used in the PREcast Seismic Structural Systems （PRESSS） program, were performed at 60% scale so that the analysis model could be validated using the PRESSS test data. Both buildings satisfied the performance criteria at four levels of earthquake motions although the design base shear of the direct displacement-based jointed wall system was 50% of that demanded by the force-based design method. The study also investigated the feasibility of controlling the maximum transient inter-story drift in a jointed wall system by increasing the number of energy dissipating shear connectors between the walls but without significantly affecting its re-centering capability.

Application of consequence-based design criteria in regions of moderate seismicity

Current design criteria and prineiples of earthquake engineering design are reviewed,including safety factors, probabilistic approach,and two-level and muhi-level functional design ideas.The modern multi-functional idea is discussed in greater details.When designing a structure,its resistance to and the intensity of the earthquake action are considered. The consequence of failure of the structure is considered only through a rough and empirical factor of importance,ranging usually from 1.0 to 1.5.This paper suggests a method of'consequence-based design,'which considers the consequences of malfunctioning instead of simply an importance factor.The main argument for this method is that damage to a structure located in different types of societies may have very different consequences,which are depeudant on its value and usefulness to the society and the seismicity in the region.

Parametric study on performance of bridge retrofitted by unseating prevention devices

Over the past decade, seismically induced damage to bridges has been widely reported following major earthquakes such as the 1994 Northridge, 1995 Kobe and 1999 Chi-Chi events. Since these earthquakes, restrainers and stoppers have been installed on bridges to prevent unseating and excessive displacements, respectively. Alternatively, column jacketing has also been proven to be effective. However, the enhanced shear strength may result in extra retrofitting works on the footing. For bridges damaged in the Chi-Chi earthquake, investigations revealed that most bridge columns experienced none-to-minor damage in the longitudinal direction. The reason for this unexpected performance was the construction practice of using a rubber bearing, which is an unbolted design that may slide under large lateral forces. In this paper, parametric studies on simply-supported bridges retrofitted by a restrainer or concrete shear key along the longitudinal and transverse axes were carried out. The research focuses on finding suitable combinations of the design force and gap spacing so the restrainer and concrete shear key can be used as an unseating prevention device, with respect to the allowable column damage in terms of displacement ductility under near-fault type earthquakes. A two-lane PCI-girder bridge was selected as the benchmark model. In the longitudinal direction, a total of nine combinations considering yielding strength and gap spacing for the restrainer were analyzed; while parameters for the concrete shear key were divided into three shear force levels and three gap spacings. In the transverse direction, a similar approach was adapted, except smaller gap spacing was used. For each of the above mentioned earthquakes, seven input ground motions were selected and their PGAs were adjusted to 0.36g and 0.45g as the Design earthquake and Maximum Considerable Earthquake, respectively. Based on the results of nonlinear time history analyses, proper parameters to design the restrainers and concrete shear keys are obtained. Responses obtained from numerical simulations under the Chi-Chi earthquake leaded to new implications to design those devices. Restrainer should not exceed its breaking strain and sufficient unseating length will be needed always. Concrete Shear key was determined by considering both displacement demand of the superstructure and displacement ductility of the column at the same time. Further study is needed to provide optimal design parameters for use in performance based bridge design.

Multi-hazard performance assessment of a transfer-plate high-rise building

Many urban areas are located in regions of moderate seismicity and are subjected to strong wind. Buildings in these regions are often designed without seismic provisions. As a result, in the event of an earthquake, the potential for damage and loss of lives may not be known. In this paper, the performance of a typical high-rise building with a thick transfer plate （TP）, which is one type of building structure commonly found in Hong Kong, is assessed against both earthquake and wind hazards. Seismic- and wind-resistant performance objectives are first reviewed based on relevant codes and design guidelines for high-rise buildings. After a brief introduction of wind-resistant design of the building, various methodologies, including equivalent static load analysis （ESLA）, response spectrum analysis （RSA）, pushover analysis （POA）, linear and nonlinear time-history analysis （LTHA and NTHA）, are employed to assess the seismic performance of the building when subjected to frequent earthquakes, design based earthquakes and maximum credible earthquakes. The effects of design wind and seismic action with a common 50-year return period are also compared. The results indicate that most performance objectives can be satisfied by the building, but there are some objectives, such as inter-story drift ratio, that cannot be achieved when subjected to the frequent earthquakes. It is concluded that in addition to wind, seismic action may need to be explicitly considered in the design of buildings in regions of moderate seismicity.

A simplified methd of evaluating the seismic performance of buildings

This paper presents a simplified method of evaluating the seismic performance of buildings. The proposed method is based on the transformation of a multiple degree of freedom (MDOF) system to an equivalent single degree of freedom (SDOF) system using a simple and intuitive process. The proposed method is intended for evaluating the seismic performance of the buildings at the intermediate stages in design, while a rigorous method would be applied to the final design. The performance of the method is evaluated using a series of buildings which are assumed to be located in Victoria in western Canada, and designed based on the upcoming version of the National Building Code of Canada which is due to be published in 2005. To resist lateral loads, some of these buildings contain reinforced concrete moment resisting frames, while others contain reinforced concrete shear walls. Each building model has been subjected to a set of site-specific seismic spectrum compatible ground motion records, and the response has been determined using the proposed method and the general method for MDOF systems. The results from the study indicate that the proposed method can serve as a useful tool for evaluation of seismic performance of buildings, and carrying out performance based design.

Soil Uncertainties on Performance of Geotechnical Works

Performance-Based Design （PBD） is a more rational approach, particularly in seismic environments. In this approach it is relevant the performance required to structures and to geotechnical works, as well as the geotechnical constitutive models used to predict the performance. The parameters of the constitutive models are related in turn to soil properties. So soil properties are a key point for Performance-Based Design. Questions arising are： （i） which are the more relevant soil properties to solve a specific PBD geotechnical problem？ （ii） which are the more relevant model parameters and how they can be evaluated and/or correlated to soil properties？ （iii） which is the role of the soil parameters uncertainty in Performance-Based Design？ An answer to these questions is given in this paper, outlining the potential offered by the new advanced in-situ and laboratory tests and discussing the performance required by some geotechnical works.

高掺量磷石膏道路基层材料配比设计及性能研究

按传统矿质混合料设计掺磷石膏道路基层材料难以大规模消纳磷石膏,为实现磷石膏在道路基层材料中大规模利用,通过骨料替代法进行高掺量磷石膏道路基层材料配比设计,确定适宜的碎石比(5~10 mm粒级与10~25 mm粒级质量比39∶61)后以不同掺量替代磷石膏基胶凝材料体系,再击实然后得出最佳含水率及最大干密度。通过对设计好的配比进行性能试验筛选,得出适宜配比为P85S60,养护28 d的试件抗压强度最大达5.39 MPa,体积变化率较低,且养护7 d后试件的体积增长稳定,体积变化率最终维持在0.5%左右,有利于现场道路施工应用。所有配比浸出氟、磷均满足《污水综合排放标准》(GB 8978—1996)一级限值,相较于常规水泥稳定碎石材料,该道路基层材料浸出液的酸碱性不会额外增加不利影响。通过XRD和SEM分析可知,胶凝材料水化产生的钙矾石和水化硅酸钙包裹在未反应的二水石膏周围,另外针棒状钙矾石和水化硅酸钙填充微小孔隙,使得试件整体结构密实、强度增加、体积稳定性增强。

高烈度区多层长悬挑钢结构设计

长安乐传媒港是十四届全运会重要配套项目,为南侧带3层大悬挑的不规则复杂结构,最大悬挑长度38.5m。主体结构采用钢结构框架-支撑体系,悬挑部分采用钢桁架结构。针对大悬挑结构设计难点开展了分析和研究;重点介绍了整体结构方案选型、结构整体分析结果以及结构抗震性能化设计结果;也重点介绍了单人行走激励和人群激励下悬挑钢桁架舒适度分析,考虑长悬挑结构安装过程、卸载顺序和楼板刚度形成次序的施工模拟分析,以及长悬挑对基础设计的影响。结果表明,本工程的多层长悬挑构结构具有较高的安全储备,整体结构具有良好抗震性能;长悬挑结构设计中需要特别关注施工过程的影响,基础设计时应考虑竖向构件受拉的不利影响。

西安领事馆区丝路国际文化艺术中心剧院结构设计

西安领事馆区丝路国际文化艺术中心剧院结构由钢筋混凝土框架-剪力墙主体与异形空间钢结构外罩组合而成,是具有体型复杂、内部空旷、跨度大等特点的混合结构。主体结构存在楼板不连续、局部不规则两项不规则项。针对不规则项及关键问题,提出加强措施及抗震性能目标。经过计算分析,找出薄弱部分进行加强,验证主体结构满足预设性能目标的要求。通过多模型比较研究发现,钢结构外罩对主体结构的影响不可忽略。对大跨、长悬挑处楼板进行了振动舒适度验算,对大跨转换钢桁架进行了竖向地震工况的补充计算,进行了楼板在温度与地震工况下受力分析。结果表明主体结构满足承载力和正常使用极限状态的要求。

水电工程主厂房防火防烟分区划分的探讨

鉴于《水电工程设计防火规范》修编过程中,对主厂房防火分区、防烟分区和疏散距离存在不同认识,本文从防火设计的基本理念出发,分析了水电工程的特殊性,同时采用性能化设计数模理论,确定了规范中防火分区、防烟分区面积,以及疏散通道长度的依据,探讨了水电工程的特点,为特殊工程防火设计规范编制提供参考。

湖北工人文化宫超限结构设计

湖北工人文化宫的主要功能为职工培训和展览等,主体结构采用框架-剪力墙结构,存在扭转不规则、偏心布置、楼板不连续、局部跃层柱等不规则项,属于复杂超限高层建筑。采用抗震性能化设计对主要构件进行复核,采用YJK和MIDAS Building软件对结构进行多遇地震弹性计算和弹性时程分析以及罕遇地震下的动力弹塑性时程分析和楼板应力分析等。分析结果表明,整体结构可以满足规范的要求,达到预定的性能目标。并根据分析结果采取抗震加强措施。在容易产生共振的大跨度预应力楼盖区域,以高阻尼橡胶减振垫作为减振材料,对楼盖在人行激励下和有节奏运动激励下的楼板舒适度进行分析。分析结果表明,楼板舒适度满足规范要求。

基于性能的含可更换耗能梁段高强钢框筒结构抗震性能研究

含可更换耗能梁段的高强钢框筒结构(HSS-SFT-RSL)结合了耗能梁段耗能强、钢框筒抗侧刚度大、高强钢承载力高等优点,是一种抗震性能优良的结构体系.传统设计方法需要进行复杂的迭代和计算才能使结构达到预期性能目标,且无法较为准确地控制结构的塑性发展顺序和破坏模式,本文采用课题组提出的基于性能的塑性设计方法(PBPD)各设计一个30层HSS-SFT-RSL算例和含可更换剪切型耗能梁段的普通钢框筒结构(CS-SFT-RSL)算例,通过静力和动力弹塑性分析对比两算例的抗震性能.结果表明:采用PBPD法设计的两算例具有相似的顶点侧移角和破坏模式,HSS-SFT-RSL算例抗侧刚度略低,但极限承载力更高;在罕遇水准地震下,两算例各层耗能梁段均能参与耗能,层间侧移角沿结构高度分布均匀,避免了薄弱层,残余层间变形较小,有利于耗能梁段更换和结构震后功能的快速恢复.

西咸自由贸易企业服务中心超高层建筑结构设计

西咸自由贸易企业服务中心地处高烈度区,与渭河断裂之间的距离约2km,应考虑近场效应。项目采用钢管混凝土框架(钢梁)+钢筋混凝土核心筒混合结构,存在扭转不规则、刚度突变、有加强层和通高层等不规则项。为提高结构刚度,在避难层设置了2道伸臂桁架加强层。采用YJK、MIDAS Building软件进行了小震弹性对比分析,采用YJK进行了小震弹性时程分析。根据设定的抗震性能目标,对主体结构主要部位和关键构件进行了性能化设计;采用SAUSAGE软件进行了罕遇地震作用下的动力弹塑性时程分析;采用ANSYS软件对伸臂桁架关键节点进行有限元分析。结果表明:各项指标均符合设计要求,结构及构件均达到预设性能目标,结构体系合理,安全可靠。本工程部分墙体为钢板混凝土剪力墙,设计中应注重钢板混凝土剪力墙的构造措施,施工中应采取措施控制钢板变形。

直接基于位移的非规则减隔震桥梁抗震设计

根据性能抗震设计的思想,提出一种高低墩减隔震桥梁直接基于位移的抗震设计方法,该方法可设计各桥墩配筋率及支座参数,使纵桥向地震作用下各墩保持弹性、各支座达到相同的损伤状态,并实现地震剪力或墩底弯矩的均匀分配。以某工程背景桥梁为例进行直接基于位移的设计,并建立有限元模型进行非线性时程分析,比较两者结果,验证所提方法的有效性。此外,对比了剪力均匀和墩底弯矩均匀这两种地震力分配方式下桥梁的地震响应。对于各墩采用相同截面尺寸和配筋的减隔震桥梁,当按照该方法进行设计时,推荐采用墩底弯矩均匀的地震力分配方式,该分配方式能更好的发挥材料性能、节约工程造价,但同时应保证墩高较低的桥墩有足够的抗剪能力。

Performance-Based Design for Large Crowd Venue Control Using a Multi-Agent Model

Performance-based design is more holistic and flexible than prescriptive design for providing safety in large complex buildings. Here, a multi-agent method to model the egress patterns of evacuees is combined with a microscopic pedestrian simulation model used to analyze the forces between individuals in a densely populated enclosed space in a crowd crushing and trampling analysis （CroC＆Ts）. The system is used to model egress patterns in a typical crowd evacuation simulation. The simulations indicate that some individuals will die from crushing in 2 m and 4 m wide exits in emergencies. The simulations also show that the fatality probability increases when barriers obstacled the path and when the egress distances were lar- ger. The simulations validate the conclusions of the stranded crowd model （SCM） and provide quantitative predictions of the crowd crushing and trampling risk. Therefore, the CroC＆Ts can provide performancebased egress designs for large pubic buildings and improve crowd safety management and emergency planning.