A new weld repair technique for friction stir welded aluminium structure:inertia friction pull plug welding

The paper gives an analysis on technical characteristics of repair techniques for friction stir welding defects. To overcome the defects,a new repair technique, inertia friction pull plug welding( IFPPW), was researched and its equipment was developed as well. Elementary datum was achieved by investigating the influences of technological parameters on mechanical properties and by analyzing the structural characteristics of repair joint with IFPPW. The study shows that the stability and reliability of welding process of IFPPW can be guaranteed through the constant energy from the flywheel.Integrated with the advantages of friction pull plug welding,the IFPPW,free from back anvil,is considered as a promising technique in repair of termination keyhole of bobbin tool friction stir welding and point-like defects in aluminum alloy welding.

Effects of welding parameters on weld shape and residual stresses in electron beam welded Ti_2AlNb alloy joints

In order to estimate the residual stresses in Ti2AlNb alloy jointed by electron beam welding (EBW), a computational approach based on finite element method was developed. Meanwhile, experiments were carried out to verify the numerical results. The comparison between the simulation results and measurements suggests that the developed computational approach has sufficient accuracy to predict the welding residual stress distributions. The results show that the central area of the fusion zone suffers tensile stresses in three directions. When the other parameters remain unchanged, the focus current has great impact on the weld shape and size, and then affects the residual stress level significantly. Moreover, the thick plate full-penetrated EBW weld suffers near 1000 MPa tensile stress of Z-direction in the center of the fusion zone. The wider weld has lower tensile stress in Z-direction, resulting in lower risk for cracking.

Mechanism of reheat cracking in electron beam welded Ti2Al Nb alloys

In order to clarify the characteristics and formation mechanism of the reheat cracking in Ti2AlNb weldments,a series of heat treatment conditions were performed to the circular joints welded by electron beam,and then the macrostructures and microstructures were investigated using optical microscopy,scanning electron microscopy,X-ray diffractometry,and transmission electron microscopy.The results show that the reheat cracking occurs primarily along the grain boundaries in the weld when the Ti2AlNb circular welded joints are heated up to about 700℃.During the heat treatment,an almost complete transformation of B2→O happens while the temperature goes up through the O single-phase region.Then,O→B2+O phase transformation occurs primarily along the grain boundaries as the weld metal continues to heat up to the B2+O dual-phase region.Under the high tension stress consisting of welding residual stress and phase transformation stress,reheat cracking occurs at the interface between the B2+O dual-phase layer and the O-phase matrix.

Phase transformation behaviors and mechanical properties of Ti_(50)Ni_(49)Fe_1 alloy with severe plastic deformation

In this work, transformation behaviors and mechanical properties of cold-rolled shape memory alloy TisoNia9Fel by severe plastic deformation （SPD） were intensively investigated. The phase transformation behaviors, phase analysis, and microstructures were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry （DSC）, X-ray diffraction （XRD）, and transmission electron microscopy （TEM）, respectively. Tensile testing was performed to analyze the effect of SPD on the mechanical properties and shape memory of TisoNi49Fel alloy. When the thickness reduction is beyond 30 %, the martensitic transformation is suppressed. After cold-rolling, the alloy is mainly com- posed of B2 parent phases with some stress-induced martensitic B 19t phases, and high density of dislocations are generated and the grains are obviously refined. The yield stress ab significantly raises from 618 MPa of 0 % cold rolling to 1,338 MPa of 50 % SPD. Shape-memory effect increases from 6.5 % without cold rolling to 8.5 % after 30 % SPD, ascribed to the induced defects in cold rolling. Those results indicate that TisoNi49Fel alloy has improved mechanical properties and potential commercial applications after SPD.

Effect of a novel three-step aging on strength, stress corrosion cracking and microstructure of AA7085

The influence of a novel three-step aging on strength, stress corrosion cracking(SCC) and microstructure of AA7085 was investigated by tensile testing and slow strain rate testing combined with transmission electron microscopy(TEM). The results indicate that with the increase of second-step aging time of two-step aging, the mechanical properties increase first and then decrease, while the SCC resistance increases. Compared with two-step aging, three-step aging treatment improves SCC resistance and the strength increases by about 5%. The effects of novel three-step aging on strength and SCC resistance are explained by the role of matrix precipitates and grain boundary precipitates, respectively.

Improving physicochemical characteristics and anaerobic digestion performance of rice straw via ammonia pretreatment at varying concentrations and moisture levels

Rice straw physicochemical characteristics and anaerobic digestion(AD)performance via ammonia pretreatment at varying ammonia concentrations(2%,4%,and 6%)and moisture contents(30%,50%,70%,and 90%)under a mild condition were investigated.The results showed that the ammonia pretreatment effectively damaged the rice straw structure,increased the soluble organic concentration,and improved rice straw hydrolysis and AD performance.After pretreatment,the ester bond and ether bond were ruptured in lignocellulose and the volatile fatty acids(VFAs)were within the range of 1457.81–1823.67 mg·L-1.In addition,ammonia pretreatment had high selectivity on lignin removal,resulting in a maximum lignin removal rate of 50.80%.The highest methane yield of rice straw was 250.34 ml·(g VS)-1 at a 4%ammonia concentration coupled with a 70%moisture content,which was 28.55%higher than that of the control.The result showed that ammonia pretreatment of rice straw is technically suitable to enhance AD performance for further application.

Impact of travel speed on the microstructure and mechanical properties of adjustable-gap bobbin-tool friction stir welded Al–Mg joints

The butt welds of 4-mm thick 5A06 aluminum alloy plates were produced by adjustable-gap bobbin-tool friction stir travel with travel speeds of 200, 300, and 400 mm/min in this study.The microstructure was studied using optical microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD).Tensile tests and microhardness measurements were performed to identify the effect of the travel speed on the joint mechanical properties.Sound joints were obtained at 200 mm/min while voids were present at different positions of the joints as the travel speed increased.The EBSD results show that the grain size, high angle grain boundaries, and density of geometrically necessary dislocations in different regions of the joint vary depending on the recovery and recrystallization behavior.Specific attention was given to the relationship between the local microstructure and mechanical properties.Microhardness measurements show that the average hardness of the stir zone(SZ) was greater than that of the base material, which was only affected slightly by the travel speed.The tensile strength of the joint decreased with increasing travel speed and the maximal strength efficiency reached 99%.

Microstructure, Texture, and Hardness Evolutions of Al-Mg-Si-Cu Alloy during Annealing Treatment

Microstructure, texture and hardness evolutions of Al-Mg-Si-Cu alloy during annealing treatment were studied by microstructure, texture and hardness characterization in the present study. The experimental results show that microstructure, texture and hardness will change to some extent with the increase of annealing temperature. The microstructure transforms from the elongated bands to elongated grains first, and then the grains grow continuously. The texture transforms from the initial deformation texture b fiber to recrystallization texture mainly consisting of CubeND {001}<310> and P {011}<122> orientations first, and then the recrystallization texture may be enhanced continuously as a result of the grain growth. Hardness decreases slowly at first, and then decreases sharply and increases significantly finally. Besides, the particle distributions also have great changes. As the annealing temperature increases, they increase firstly as a result of precipitation, and then gradually disappear as a result of dissolution. Finally, the effect of annealing temperature on microstructure, texture and hardness evolutions is discussed.

Numerical simulation of thermal field of FSW 2219 aluminum alloy thick plate

To investigate the influence of temperature field of friction stir welding(FSW)2219 aluminum alloy thick plate,and to achieve effective prediction of temperature field,the authors establish a three-dimensional numerical simulation model of FSW 18 mm thick 2219 aluminum alloy based on ABAQUS/CEL,considering the morphological characteristics of the tool pin.The simulations of plunging,dwelling,and welding stages are achieved.The distribution of temperature and temperature cycle curve of characteristic points in welding process are obtained.The validity of the simulation results is verified by experiments.The influence of the tool-rotational speed and welding speed on temperature field is explored.The work lays a foundation for the prediction and control of temperature field in FSW medium thickness 2219 aluminum alloy,and provides reference for selection of welding parameters to ensure high quality welding of fuel tank of heavy-lift rocket.

Effect of homogenization annealing on internal residual stress distribution and texture in ME21 magnesium alloy extruded plates

The distribution of residual stresses through thickness of 5 mm-thick ME21 magnesium alloy extruded plates was analyzed non-destructively using short-wavelength X-ray diffraction(SWXRD),and the effect of homogenization annealing before extrusion on the residual stress was discussed.The classic d 0 method with an annealed stress-free reference specimen was employed to determine the residual stress of the extruded plates.The residual stress results showed that the gradient of residual stress in the transverse direction was larger than that of the extrusion direction.The homogenization process prior to extrusion weaken the formed sample’s texture.The maximum residual stress of the as-extruded plate was reduced,and the residual stress distribution was homogenized.

Effect of particle size distribution on the microstructure,texture,and mechanical properties of Al–Mg–Si–Cu alloy

The effect of particle size distribution on the microstructure,texture,and mechanical properties of Al–Mg–Si–Cu alloy was investigated on the basis of the mechanical properties,microstructure,and texture of the alloy.The results show that the particle size distribution influences the microstructure and the final mechanical properties but only slightly influences the recrystallization texture.After the pre-aging treatment and natural aging treatment(T4 P treatment),in contrast to the sheet with a uniform particle size distribution,the sheet with a bimodal particle size distribution of large constituent particles and small dispersoids exhibits higher strength and a somewhat lower plastic strain ratio(r) and strain hardening exponent(n).After solution treatment,the sheet with a bimodal particle size distribution of large constituent particles and small dispersoids possesses a finer and slightly elongated grain structure compared with the sheet with a uniform particle size distribution.Additionally,they possess almost identical weak recrystallization textures,and their textures are dominated by CubeND {001}<310> and P {011}<122> orientations.

Analysis of local microstructure and strengthening mechanisms in adjustable-gap bobbin tool friction stir welds of Al-Mg

The bobbin tool friction stir welding process was used to join 6 mm thick 5A06 aluminum alloy plates.Optical microscope was used to characterize the microstructure.The electron backscatter diffraction(EBSD)identified the effect of non-homogeneous microstructure on the tensile properties.It was observed that the grain size in the top of the stir zone(SZ)is smaller than that in the centre region.The lowest ratio of recrystallization and density of the geometrically-necessary dislocations(GNDs)in the SZ was found in the middle near the thermo-mechanically affected zone(TMAZ)being 22%and 1.15×10^(−13) m^(−2),respectively.The texture strength of the heat-affected zone(HAZ)is the largest,followed by that in the SZ,with the lowest being in the TMAZ.There were additional interfaces developed which contributed to the strengthening mechanism,and their effect on tensile strength was analysed.The tensile tests identified the weakest part in the joint at the interfaces,and the specific reduction value is about 93 MPa.

Friction stir welding of high-strength aerospace aluminum alloy and application in rocket tank manufacturing

Friction stir welding （FSW） has been widely adopted in aerospace industry for fabricating high-strength aluminum alloy structures, such as large volume fuel tanks, due to its exceptional advantages includ- ing low distortion, less defects and high mechanical properties of the joint. This article systematically reviews the key technical issues in producing large capacity aluminum alloy fuel tanks by using FSW, including tool design. FSW process optimization, nondestructive testing （NDT） techniques and defect repairing techniques, etc. To fulfill the requirements of Chinese aerospace industry, constant-force FSW, retractable tool FSW, lock joint FSW, on-line NDT and solid-state equal-strength FSW techniques, as well as a complete set of aerospace aluminum FSW equipment, have been successfully developed. All these techniques have been engineered and validated in rocket tanks, which enormously improved the fabrication ability of Chinese aerospace industry.

Improvement of the conversion efficiency of Mg_(3)Sb_(2)thermoelectric devices through optimizing the resistivity of the MgSbNi barrier layer

Mg_(3)Sb_(2)-based thermoelectric materials have been the focus of widespread investigations as promising candidates for the harvesting of waste heat.Interface stability and service performance are key points for the commercial applications of these materials.We utilized Mg_(4.3)Sb_(3)Ni as a barrier layer to improve the thermal stability of Mg 3 Sb 2-based devices.However,its intrinsic high resistivity contributed nega-tively to the desired performance of the device.In this work,we investigated two other Mg-Sb-Ni ternary phases,MgSbNi and MgSbNi_(2),as new barrier layer materials to connect with Mg_(3.2)Sb_(2)Y_(0.05).The results show that the efficiency of the Mg_(1.2)SbNi/Mg_(3.2)Sb_(2)Y_(0.05)/Mg_(1.2)SbNi joint is increased by 33%relative to the higher Mg-content barriers due to lower resistivity.The system exhibited good interfacial compatibility and showed little change with aging at 673 K for 20 days.

Research Progress of Bobbin Tool Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys:A Review

Bobbin tool friction stir welding(BT-FSW)is a variant of conventional friction stir welding(FSW).It can be used to weld complex curvature structures and closed sections by adding an extra shoulder instead of a rigid backing anvil,which expands the potential application of FSW in aerospace,railway,automotive and marine industries.BT-FSW has some signifi cant advantages over conventional FSW such as no root fl aws,full weld penetration,low stiff ness requirements for machines and fi xtures,balanced heat input,lower distortion and thus has broad prospects for development.At present,there have been numerous research reports on BT-FSW,but its widespread use is still restricted due to various factors such as tool life,process stability,control complexity and implementation cost.In this paper,the domestic and foreign research progress of BT-FSW is reviewed from four aspects of bobbin tool design and classifi cation,temperature fi eld and fl ow fi eld during welding,microstructure and mechanical properties of welded joints as well as industrial application,and then the possible research hotspots of BT-FSW in the future are pointed out.This paper mainly aims to help researchers have a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of BT-FSW.

Electrode design using revolving entity extraction for high-efficiency electric discharge machining of integral shrouded blisk

The integral shrouded blisk provides better performance with minimum weight,but its semi-open structure presents problems for its production.Manufacturing processes of these components require a removal of about 70%-90%of material from their blanks.Multi-axis electrical discharge machining(EDM)is commonly used for these processes,but its poor efficiency cannot meet the requirements of mass production.Strong flushing assisted high-current discharge is able to improve the machining efficiency.In this paper,this method was applied to manufacture the integral shrouded blisk.An electrode design method was proposed.Taking the largest revolving entity inside the flow channel as the base geometry,this laminated arc-shaped hollow electrode meets the requirements such as high pressure flushing,tool wear compensation,and easy to be made.A 4-axis linkage machining tool path with planetary motion was proposed.Taking an integral guide vane ring as an example,it has been experimentally verified that the time consumption for each channel using this method was reduced to a half of the ordinary EDM method,while the finished surface quality remains same.

Experimental and numerical investigations of bonding interface behavior in stationary shoulder friction stir lap welding

Stationary shoulder friction stir lap welding(SSFSLW) was employed to weld 2024 aluminum alloy. A coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian(CEL) model was developed to investigate the lap interface behavior during SSFSLW. Numerical results of material movement and equivalent plastic strain were in good agreement with the experimental work. With increasing welding speed, the distances from the hook tip to the top surface of the upper workpiece on the retreating side(RS) and the advancing side(AS) increase, while the distance between two wave-shaped alclads decreases. A symmetric interface bending is observed on the AS and the RS during plunging, while the interface bending on the AS is bigger than that on the RS during welding. The peak temperature of the interface on the AS is higher than that on the RS. The equivalent plastic strain gradually increases as the distance to the weld center decreases, and its peak value is obtained near the bottom of the weld.

Effects of the Reversely Rotating Assisted Shoulder on Microstructures During the Reverse Dual-rotation Friction Stir Welding

The reverse dual-rotation friction stir welding(RDR-FSW) has the capability to adjust the heat generation because of the separately designed tool shoulder and tool pin.The welding torque exerted on the workpiece by the reversely rotating shoulder is opposite to that exerted by the rotating tool pin,so the total welding torque is reduced,which is beneficial to reducing the clamping requirement of workpieces.In the present paper,a RDR-FSW joint was welded in a condition similar to the optimal welding condition of conventional FSW,and microstructures in various zones were investigated by comparison,aiming to highlight effects of the reversely rotating assisted shoulder.Due to the heat conduction of the middle cylinder and the bottom end cover on which the assisted shoulder was machined,the thermal effect of RDR-FSW was smaller than that of the conventional FSW.Moreover,the effect of assisted shoulder on the plastic flow or deformation of material or was constrained in a thin layer near the weld top surface,and thus the flow of material especially along the thickness direction was clearly decreased in the RDR-FSW.In the heat-affected zone(HAZ),the precipitate coarsening was the main evolution and was completed through the dissolution of small precipitates and the continuous growth of large precipitates.By contrast,the dissolution degree of precipitates increased significantly in the thermomechanically affected zone(TMAZ),and a small amount of original meta-stable precipitates transformed to block-shaped stable precipitates.Precipitate evolutions in the shoulder affected zone(SAZ)and the weld nugget zone were similar,i.e.the majority of original meta-stable precipitates dissolved into the matrix and the remainder transformed to stable precipitates,though the dissolution degree was greater in the SAZ.Compared with the conventional FSW joint,the coarsening degrees of precipitates in the HAZ and TMAZ of RDR-FSW joint were much smaller,as well as the dissolution degrees of precipitates in all four specified zones.

Transformation behaviors and superelasticity of Ti_(50)Ni_(48)Fe_2 shape memory alloy subjected to cold-rolling and subsequent annealing

The effects of annealing on the phase transformation behavior and superelasticity of cold-rolled Ti50Ni48Fe2 shape memory alloy were extensively investigated. Curves of temperature dependence of electrical resistivity reveal that both the cold-rolled and annealed specimens exhibit a B2→R→B19’two-stage martensitic transformation upon cooling and a B19’→B2 one-stage transformation upon heating, although the austenitic transformation temperature decreases with the increase of the annealing temperature. Tensile stress–strain curves show the critical stress for stress-induced martensite（rSIM）of Ti50Ni48Fe2 alloys decreases with the increase of annealing temperature due to the decrement of dislocation density caused by the recrystallization. As a result, the rSIM decreases. Upon a cold-rolling and annealing at 623 K for30 min, the Ti50Ni48Fe2 alloy exhibits excellent superelasticity with the maximum recoverable strain of 5.8 % at a loading strain of 7 %. In such a case, a complete superelasticity of 5 % can be obtained in the Ti50Ni48Fe2 alloy after deformation increasing to 15 cycles.

Enhanced Fatigue Properties of 2219 Al Alloy Joints via Bobbin Tool Friction Stir Welding

In the present study,2219-T87 Al alloy plates,4 mm in thickness,were subjected to bobbin tool friction stir welding(BTFSW)under relatively high welding speeds of 200 and 400 mm/min,with the aim to analyze the effect of welding speeds on fatigue properties of the joints.The results showed that the tension–tension high-cycle fatigue performance of the BT-FSW joints at room temperature was significantly enhanced compared to that of other joints of 2xxx series Al alloys counterparts.Particularly at a high welding speed of 400 mm/min,the fatigue strength of the joint reached 78%of the base material together with a high tensile strength of 311 MPa.It was found that the joint line remnants had no effects on the fatigue properties of the BT-FSW joints due to the elimination of root flaws under the action of the lower shoulder.Most of the samples with the welding speed of 200 mm/min failed at the thermo-mechanical zone(TMAZ)during fatigue tests,attributable to the coarsened grains and precipitates,but all of the samples with high welding speed of 400 mm/min randomly failed at the nugget zone due to the improved hardness value in the TMAZ.