Analysis of Farmers Adoption Behaviour of CRIG Recommended Technologies as a Package: The Case of Some Self Help Cocoa Farmer Associations in the Eastern Region of Ghana

Adoption of recommended technologies as a package is the prelude to increase cocoa productivity per unit area. This is due to the interactive benefits of individual technologies which have been recommended by the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG). However, many surveys among cocoa farmers have reported low adoption of technologies resulting in low productivity of cocoa with an average of 450 kg/ha among small holder cocoa farmers in Ghana. The current study investigates the adoption behavior of some cocoa farmers belonging to some self help farmer associations in the Eastern Region who are being monitored by CRIG since 2011. Primary data was collected from 131 respondents using questionnaires to interview farmers between 2013 and 2015. The results showed that adoption of recommended cocoa technologies as a package was still low. Respondents, however, identified a number of challenges including high cost of inputs, lack of finance and access to credit, high cost of labour and old age as some factors hampering composite adoption of the full CRIG technologies. It is recommended that small-scale cocoa farmers need a sustainable and convenient microfinance that can motivate and help them afford the cost associated with the full package of technologies. Farmers’ savings culture should also be nurtured to enhance their financial capabilities and investment in the cocoa farm.

Evaluation of Major Chemical Components in Beans of Some Selected International Cocoa Clones in Ghana

Cocoa bean is an important raw material for the chocolate, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. The butter content and other chemical components such as polyphenols play essential role in the health benefits of consumers as well as flavor of chocolates produced. In this study cocoa beans from 15 international clones （genotypes） were fermented and dried for six and 14 days, respectively. Genotypic effect on the major chemical components of the beans that affect chocolate flavour and taste were assessed using various protocols in the laboratory. Concentrations and relationship existing among the chemical components tested during three- and two-year periods were determined. Genotypic differences were found to account for variation in the concentration of various components tested. Among the genotypes used Man 15-2 seems to be high in fat content whilst IMC 47 was low. In terms of O-dihydric phenol content ICS 1 recorded the highest whilst MO 20 recorded the least. A further test on polyphenols content showed high levels for Gu 255 whilst T 79/501 recorded the least. Significant positive correlation was also observed among the various chemical components tested. The findings of this work clearly confirmed the existence of significant correlations among the major chemical components in cocoa beans and the influence of genotype on the chemical component concentration. This information could be very useful in breeding and selection for a particular component since genotype plays a major role.

Effects of Fermentation and Drying on the Fermentation Index and Cut Test of Pulp Pre-conditioned Ghanaian Cocoa （Theobroma cacao） Beans

Investigations were conducted to establish effects of fermentation and drying on the fermentation index （FI） and cut test of pulp pre-conditioned Ghanaian cocoa beans using a 4 x 3 full factorial experimental design with the principal factors being pod storage （0, 3, 7 and 10 d） and fermentation time （0, 3 and 6 d） to study the changes occurring during the fermentation process. The study also used a 4 x 3 full factorial design with pod storage （0, 3, 7 and 10 d） and drying time （0, 3 and 7 d） being the principal factors investigated to study the changes occurring during the drying process. FI and cut test of the beans were studied during fermentation as well as the drying process. FI of the beans increased significantly with pod storage and fermentation but decreased slightly during drying. FI of the unfermented beans increased slightly from 0.674 for the unstored pods to 0.763 after 10 days of pod storage. The FI of the fermented beans （six days fermentation） also increased from 1.390 for the unstored pods to 1.424 for pods stored for 10 days. It decreased from 1.389 at the start of drying for the unstored pods to 1.105 for pods stored for 10 days at the end of drying （seven days）. FI of all the beans were however, above 1.0 at the end of fermentation and drying for all pod storage treatments. Cut test revealed that storage of pods for 3, 7 and 10 days increased the percentage of brown beans by 66%, 94% and 72%, respectively, by the sixth day of fermentation. Percentage of brown beans decreased to 61%, 76% and 63%, respectively, for pods stored for 3, 7 and 10 d at the end of drying （seven days）. Cocoa pods can be stored for up to 10 days, fermented for six days and dried for seven days with the necessary formation of brown pigments characteristics of well fermented and dried cocoa beans.

Effects of Pulp Preconditioning on Total Polyphenols, O-diphenols and Anthocyanin Concentrations during Fermentation and Drying of Cocoa （Theobroma cacao） Beans

Changes in total polyphenols, O-diphenols and anthocyanin concentrations during fermentation and drying of pulp pre-conditioned cocoa （Theobroma cacao） beans were investigated using standard analytical methods. Increasing pod storage, fermentation and drying led to variable reductions in total polyphenols, O-diphenols and anthocyanins content of the beans. The rates of reduction were however more pronounced during fermentation than pod storage and drying. Storage of cocoa pods between 3-7 days with 6 and 7 days of fermentation and drying respectively retained 85%-90% of the total polyphenol and O-diphenols of the cocoa beans. Similarly, anthocyanin content of beans from the 10 days of pod storage decreased by 70% in the sixth day of fermentation. Pod storage decreased the anthocyanin content at all periods of fermentation. These suggest that the post-harvest treatments of pod storage, fermentation and drying all results in variable reductions in polyphenolic content （total polyphenols and O-diphenols） and anthocyanins content of cocoa beans.

Effects of selective logging on tree diversity and some soil characteristics in a tropical forest in southwest Ghana

We investigated the effects of selective logging disturbances on tree diversity and soil characteristics in the Bia Conservation Area in southwest Ghana. The study was conducted in unlogged, 29-35 years post-logged and swamp forests using ten 25 m× 25 m plots. In total, we identified 310 individual trees belonging to 87 species. Mean Shannon-Weiner index was highest in the post-logged forest but there were no significant differences in tree density, dominance, or DBH size class distributions between these forests. Soil physical properties such as pH and bulk density up to 30 cm depth were similar in the two of forests In terms of soil nutrient status, available P, exchangeable K and total N contents were all similar in the unlogged and post-logged forests. Our findings suggest that the effects of logging on tree diversity are compara-tively long-term, in contrast to its short-term effects on some top soil physical and chemical characteristics.

Indigenous Methods of Processing Shea Butter and Perceptions about Rancidity in Northern Ghana

This study aimed at the geographical variation in methods of processing shea butter that has been passed on from generation to generation and storage procedures （materials and containers used/perceived shelf life of the products used for preservation and local perceptions about rancidity）. Little variation was found in indigenous processing methods, utilization and storage across most of the three regions. Only among the Dagomba tribe in the Northern region did women intentionally use shrubs to add yellow colour to butter particularly that for the market. The use of onions and lemon/lime leaves to prevent rancidity and also improve the taste and smell of butter was found to be practiced by only one missionary group. Perception about shelf life of the butter was found to vary widely among the processors and consumers （3 months to 2 years）. Though this was the main focus of the study, most of the indigenous processors and consumers apart from the missionary group had little experience as far as this problem was concerned. This was due to the fact that most of them consumed the butter within one or two months after processing and so the product is not kept long enough to give any appreciable signs of rancidity.

Development of Weed Management Strategies for Cashew Cultivation in Ghana

Three field trials, one for establishment and two for mature phases respectively, were conducted to develop weed management strategies for cashew cultivation in Ghana. The treatments for the establishment phase consisted of hoe weeding of whole plot, hoe weeding of cashew lines and slashing of inter-rows, herbicide application with glyphosate of whole plot or cashew lines with slashing of inter-rows, relay cropping of the cashew plot with sorghum and a legume and intercropping with a legume. In one trial of the mature phase, the treatments were hoe weeding of whole plot two or three times a year, high slashing of whole plot three times a year, herbicide application （glyphosate） of whole plot and ring application of herbicide （glyphosate） plus high slashing of inter-rows twice a year. In the other trial, which was carried out on farmers＇ fields, glyphosate （Roundup） at 2.0 l/ha was tested against manual slashing. In the study of the establishment phase, neither the girth nor height of the cashew seedlings was significantly affected by the treatments. The first year and four year cumulative cashew yields were significantly affected by treatments with the intercrops giving higher yields than the glyphosate-treated plots. Intercropping as a weed control measure was generally more costly than glyphosate application or manual weeding. In the mature trials, chemical weed control slightly improved cashew nut yield and was cheaper to apply. It is recommended to adopt chemical weed control in cashew cultivation in Ghana.

Evaluation of Potential Cashew Clones for Utilization in Ghana

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L) is an important cash crop cultivated by about 3 million households in Africa and serves as the livelihood for many African farmers, especially Ghana. Despite the importance of cashew as a commodity crop with increasing cultivation in Northern Ghana, the crop is challenged with problems such as, low and variable nut yields, low kernel out turn percentage and susceptibility to insect pests as a result of establishing cashew farms with unselected seeds. In order to address the challenges, the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana established a clonal evaluation trial in Northern Ghana (dry savanna vegetation) to indentify promising clones for subsequent distribution to cashew farmers as an interim measure. The trials consisted of ten different clones planted in Randomised Completed Block Design (RCBD) with four replicates. Parameters evaluated were yield, yield efficiency, nut weight, percentage out turn and canopy area. Data analysis was performed with Gen Stat version 11.0 and the results revealed significant differences (P < 0.05) in the performance of the clones in all the parameters considered. Such differences allowed the identification of promising clones over other clones tested. A few clones combined two or three traits (parameters) which were significantly different from the rest of the clones evaluated. No single clone was found to be significantly different from the rest in terms of all the parameters considered. However a greater proportion of the clones were found to produce yields far above average yields recorded by unselected cashew trees in farmers’ fields. Clones W266 and W278 seem outstanding for most of the parameters considered, though not exclusive.

Changes in Nib Acidity, Proteolysis and Sugar Concentration as Influenced by Pod Storage and Roasting Conditions of Fermented Cocoa （Theobroma cacao） Beans

Changes in nib acidity, protein and sugar concentration during roasting of pulp pre-conditioned and fermented cocoa （Theobroma cacao） beans were investigated. A 4 - 4 full factorial design with the principal experimental factors as pod storage （0, 3, 7 and l0 d） and roasting time （0, 15, 30 and 45 min） were used. The roasted samples were evaluated for pH, titratable acidity, protein content and sugars concentrations using standard methods. Increasing pod storage caused consistent increases in pH with concomitant decreases in titratable acidity, whereas increasing roasting time caused only marginal and insignificant changes in pH but significantly decreased the titratable acidity. The protein content decreased significantly （P 〈 0.05） with increasing pod storage and roasting time. Reducing sugars increased marginally with increasing pod storage treatments whiles increasing roasting time significantly （P 〈 0.05） decreased the reducing sugars of the beans for all pod storage. The non-reducing sugar and total sugar content of the beans decreased significantly from 3.493 mg/g to 2.641 mg/g and from 9.284 mg/g to 8.891 mg/g, respectively, for pods stored from 0 to 10 days while roasting time caused slight decreases in non-reducing sugars with a considerable decrease in total sugars. Pod storage up to seven days decreased considerable the nib acidity （non-volatile acids）, non-reducing sugars and total sugars while roasting up to 45 min at 120 ℃ caused dramatic decreases in the nib acidity and reducing sugars with only marginal decreases in non-reducing sugars and total sugars.

Effect of Indole 3-Butyric Acid and Media Type on Adventitious Root Formation in Sheanut Tree (<i>Vitellaria paradoxa</i>C. F. Gaertn.) Stem Cuttings

Shea nuts play an important role in food security for rural folks within sub-Sahara Africa, serving as the main source of income for many people living in Northern Ghana. Unfortunately, the full economic potential of the Sheanut tree has not been fully realized due to the difficulty involved in its domestication. This difficulty in vegetatively propagating sheanut trees has greatly hindered its cultivation and the realization of its true economic potential. Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of rooting media and varying indole 3-butyric acid (IBA) concentrations on adventitious root formation in cuttings taken from coppiced sheanut trees. Results indicated that 3000 ppm produced significantly (p 0.05) better rooting (57.5%) than 5000 ppm (30%), 7000 ppm (45.0%) and the control (7.5%). Although the levels of soluble sugars (SS) and total free phenols (TFP) in the cutting were significantly (p 0.05) higher at the end of the experiment (after IBA treatment) compared to the start (prior to IBA treatment), the SS and TFP trends observed did not clearly explain the rooting differences found between the IBA levels investigated. Callus formation was significantly (p 0.05) higher (35.0%) in the control (no IBA). Generally, callus formation decreased with increasing IBA concentration. In the rooting media experiment, rooting was significantly (p 0.05) higher in the rice husk medium (35.0%) compared to that in the palm fiber (18.3%), saw dust (14.1%) and top soil (16.7%) media.

Rooting Response of Air-Layered Shea (<i>Vitellaria paradoxa</i>) Trees to Media and Hormonal Application under Two Different Climatic Conditions

Shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn. Family;Sapotaceae) indigenous to the Sudano-sahelian zone of Africa has great economic and ecological potential and attributes. Commercial cultivation of the tree is however, hampered by the poor rooting success of its planting material with adverse consequences on field establishment and total fruit yield. A 3 × 2 factorial experiment arranged in a randomized complete block design was carried out in 2012 at Bole in the Interior Savanna agro-ecological zone. The objective was to assess the rooting success of Shea shoots by the air-layering technique using two media types (palm fibre and Sphagnum moss) and three IBA hormone concentrations (0, 5000 and 10,000 ppm) under contrasting climatic (wet and dry) conditions. Layered shoots which were sprayed with 10,000 ppm IBA and wrapped with Sphagnum moss gave significantly (P < 0.05) higher rooting success in terms of more roots per cutting (73.3%) and longer roots per cutting (9.0 cm) than palm fibre at both 5000 ppm (30.0%;3.7 cm) and 10,000 ppm (46.7%;7.9 cm) concentrations. Higher rooting success was significantly achieved in the wet season than in the dry season. Sphagnum moss treated with 10,000 ppm IBA facilitated the translocation of higher levels of sugar and total free phenol (TFP) to the base of the layered shoots which resulted in significantly (P < 0.05) higher number of roots and better roots protection from fungal infection than the other treatments. Rooting of layered shoots was affected to a greater extent by low temperatures (Rooting = 836 – 34.2 Temp (low);R2 = 82%, p < 0.001) than by high temperatures (Rooting = 5250 – 175.0 Temp (high);R2 = 64.5%, p < 0.009). Rooting of layered shoots was also significantly and negatively affected by the spread of the canopy of the selected tree such that closed canopy trees resulted in higher and better rooting that open canopy trees (Rooting = 113.87-23.697(Canopy spread);R2 = 89%, p = 0.002;n = 9). Furthermore, significant and positive correlations were found between IBA concentration level and simple sugars (r = 0.99;P < 0.0001;n = 9) and also between IBA concentration level and total free phenols (r = 0.98;P < 0.0002;n = 9). The study concluded that to achieve high rooting success in the propagation of Shea nut tree by the air-layering technique, a combination of Sphagnum moss treated with 10,000 ppm of IBA hormone should be used and the whole set up carried out in the wet season.

Genotypic Effect of Rootstock and Scion on Grafting Success and Growth of Kola (Cola nitida) Seedlings

Kola (Cola nitida) is an important economic cash crop for many West and Central African countries. It has several medicinal uses in the pharmaceutical industries and also plays a major role in traditional marriages among Islamic communities across West and Central Africa. The crop is extensively cultivated in Nigeria and Ghana. However, it exhibit signs of total and partial sterility as well as self incompatibility when propagated from seeds in most cases. Therefore, grafting is seen as a method of choice in addressing the problem stated above. Though grafting accounts for some degree of success, there is the need to assess genotypic and physiological factors that account for high or low grafting success. Genetic and physiological factors (such as rootstock age) affecting grafting success and growth in kola (C. nitida) were investigated in two separate experiments. In experiment I720 kola seedlings were raised from unselected kola nuts and sown at two monthly intervals. Four groups of seedlings (180/group) i.e. 6, 8, 10 and 12 months old were thus produced. Three different scions (A1, A12 and JB1) measuring (5-10 cm) were grafted onto the four age groups of rootstocks, namely, 6, 8, 10 and 12 months. Experiment II consisted of 540 seedlings raised from three main crosses (JX1/9 × JX1/11 * B1/142 × B1/151, JX1/9 × JX1/11 * B2/177 × B2/156 and JX1/9 × JX1/11 * GX1/46 × GX1/53). Grafting was done after six months using the same set of scions as described in experiment I. Experimental design used was 3 × 4 and 3 × 3 factorial designs in completely randomised design with three replicates for experiment I and II respectively. The fixed effects were the different genotype and age of rootstock at grafting whilst the response variable was the percentage of successful grafting two months as well as growth at six monthly intervals. Results from the study showed that grafting onto 6 months old stocks gave the highest percentage success and growth of grafts followed by 8, 10 and 12 months old rootstock in that order in both trial years. The study revealed also a significant rootstock and scion interaction (P < 0.05). We conclude that successful grafting in kola depends on rootstock genotype such as JX1/9 × JX1/11 * GX1/46 × GX1/53 and has been proven suitable for use in future kola propagation studies. Nonetheless, suitable rootstock with high grafting success does not translate into vigorous scion growth.

Weaning and Field Survival Responses of Propagules to Propagating Structures and Seedling Types in Sheanut Production in Tropical Africa

The Shea is an economic tree found in West and Central Africa with huge industrial uses in the confectionery, pharmaceutical and cosmetic sectors worldwide. Its rapid multiplication has been hampered by its slow growth and long gestation period. Successes in cutting propagation have been achieved (between 60% - 80%), however weaning of the rooted cuttings for establishment has been a major challenge. Two factorial experiments were carried out in a study in 2012. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of propagating structures and seedling types on the weaning and subsequent field establishment of propagules of Shea tree for plantation establishment. A randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Survival of the rooted cuttings in the mist propagator was very high (93.3%) and comparable to that of the seedlings (100%). The rooted cuttings in mist propagator produced the highest number of leaves, 11 times greater than the least number of leaves produced by seedlings in the lath house. Comparing the seedling types, the rooted cuttings produced significantly greater number of leaves, 4.8 times than the normal seedlings. Rooted cuttings in the mist propagator produced the biggest stem girth significantly greater than the seedlings kept in all the structures. The rooted cuttings in the mist propagator produced 4.4 times bigger stem girths than the seedlings in the lath house which had the smallest stem girth. The rooted cuttings in the mist propagator produced the tallest plants, 1.4 times and 1.9 times significantly taller than the seedlings in the propagating pit and lath house, respectively, which produced the shortest plants. There was a significant relationship between field survival of propagules and the month of establishment expressed as Y (percent survival) = -2844 + 0.070 × (month);P < 0.001;R2 = 0.68;n = 90. Rooted cuttings transplanted in a hole depth of 52.0 cm produced the biggest stem girth, 5.6 times bigger than the stem girth of the seedlings transplanted into any of the three hole depths. Rooted cuttings transplanted into a hole depth of 52.0 cm produced the highest number of leaves, three times more than the seedlings in 26 cm hole depth, which produced the least number of leaves. The study concluded that the mist propagator was the most suitable propagating structure for weaning rooted cuttings of sheanut tree since it resulted in higher survival of the rooted cuttings as well as promoted the growth of the rooted cuttings. For field establishment, rooted cuttings transplanted into hole depth of 52 cm resulted in higher survival rates and performed better in terms of growth than the seedlings. Furthermore, the month of establishment was very critical for the rate of survival of the transplanted propagules of Shea tree.

Asexual Propagation of Sheanut Tree (<i>Vitellaria paradoxa</i>C.F. Gaertn.) Using a Container Layering Technique

In spite of the economic potential of the sheanut tree (Vitellaria paradoxa), its domestication still has not been achieved due to the long juvenile period of seed propagated plants and the absence of a reliable vegetative propagation method. Three experiments were conducted by using a modified container layering technique to investigate the effects of season (rainy and dry season), light treatments (etiolation and natural light) and indole 3-butyric acid (IBA) on root formation in juvenile and mature sheanut trees. The effect of light treatments on the internal conditions such as level of sugars (soluble, insoluble and total sugars) and total free phenols in layered sheanut shoots was also considered. Rooting was generally lower in the mature trees (27.9%) compared to that in juvenile 4 year-old plants (40.9%). Etiolation increased the levels of total sugars and phenols in shoots of 4-year-old plants and mature fruit bearing trees, but this increase did not significantly enhance rooting in both the juvenile and mature sheanut trees. The container layering technique holds promise as a method for the asexual propagation of sheanut planting material. Roots formed using this method looked healthy and were vertically orientated giving layered shoots a better chance at survival.

Preliminary Investigation on Somatic Embryogenesis from Immature Cotyledon Explants of Shea （Vitellaria paradoxa G,）

Long juvenile phase and lack of effective protocols for large scale vegetative propagation are limitations to domestication and improvement of the shea tree. The present study seeks to develop a protocol for plant regeneration of shea （Vitellaria paradoxa） from immature cotyledon explants. Embryogenic callus cultures were induced on Murashige and Skoog medium （MS） containing 3% sucrose, 0.24% Phytagel, and various concentrations of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid （2,4-D） after four weeks of culture in darkness. Rates of embryogenic callus induction were significantly affected by the addition of 2, 4-D to the medium. Within 28 days of culture, the highest percentage of embyogenic calli （77.61%） occurred on MS media containing 0.45 ~tM of 2,4-D in the dark. Somatic embryos were obtained by culturing embryogenic callus （in the dark） on MS medium fortified with 3% sucrose, 0.24% phytagel and devoid of growth regulators. Culturing at 16 h photoperiod restricted both the induction of embryogenic calli cultures and somatic embryos. Somatic embryos germinated, developed shoots and rooted vigorously on MS medium devoid of growth regulators. Germinated plantlets were acclimatized, successfully.