The source of lithium in Lakkor Co Salt Lake on Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China:evidence from hydrochemical characteristics and boron isotope

The availability of lithium resources is of great significance for the development of modern technologies,as well as for civil and military industries.The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is a region known for its abundance of lithium-rich salt lakes.However,the specific origin of lithium in these lakes is still unknown,which hinders the advancement of the lithium resource business in this region.To research this issue,this study involved the collection of 20 samples from Lakkor Co Salt Lake on Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,encompassing samples of surface brine,cold springs,fresh lakes,and recharge rivers.The composition of anions and cations in these samples was determined.Furthermore,the analysis extensivelyutilizedthePiperthree-linediagram,Gibbs model,and ion proportion coefficient.The findings of this study indicate that as the moves from the recharge water system to salt lake,there is a transition in water type from strong carbonate to moderate carbonate and weak carbonate,as well as Na sulfate.This research based on a similar source of both lithium and boron,utilized ion correlation analysis and boron isotope study in the Lakkor Co area,and analyzed the source and transporting process of lithium.The main origin of lithium in Lakkor Co is the dissolution of lithiumrich rocks,recharge water systems,and deep hydrothermal fluids.These findings are highly significant in enhancing the foundational data of lithium-rich brine resources in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and are beneficial for assessing the future development of such deposits.

Influences of soil moisture and salt content on loess shear strength in the Xining Basin, northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Moisture and salt content of soil are the two predominant factors influencing its shear strength. This study aims to investigate the effects of these two factors on shear strength behavior of loess in the Xining Basin of Northeast Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, where such geological hazards as soil erosion, landslides collapse and debris flows are widespread due to the highly erodible loess. Salinized loess soil collected from the test site was desalinized through salt-leaching in the laboratory. The desalinized and oven-dried loess samples were also artificially moisturized and salinized in order to examine how soil salinity affects its shear strength at different moisture levels. Soil samples prepared in different ways(moisturizing, salt-leaching, and salinized) were measured to determine soil cohesion and internal friction angle. The results show that salt-leaching up to 18 rounds almost completely removed the salt content and considerably changed the physical components of loess, but the soil type remained unchanged. As salt content increases from 0.00% to 12.00%, both the cohesion and internal friction angle exhibit an initial decrease and then increase with salt content. As moisture content is 12.00%, the salt content threshold value for both cohesion and internal friction angle is identified as 3.00%. As the moisture content rises to 16.0% and 20.00%, the salt content threshold value for cohesion is still 6.00%, but 3.00% for internal friction angle. At these thresholds soil shear strength is the lowest, below which it is inversely related to soil salinity. Beyond the thresholds, however, the relationship is positive. Dissimilar to salinity, soil moisture content exerts an adverse effect on shear strength of loess. The findings of this study can provide a valuable guidance on stabilizing the engineering properties of salinized loess to prevent slope failures during heavy rainfall events.

Aeolian component records in lacustrine sediments and its atmospheric circulation significance for evolution of Qarhan salt lake,NE Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

1 Introduction The Qarhan Playa of Qaidam Basin is located at the northeastern QinghaiTibetan Plateau(QTP),in which thick lacustrine and evaporate sediments deposited since the late Pleistocene(Chen et al.,1985,1986).As surrounded by capacious Gobi and yardang fields and suffered strong westerly-northwesterly wind,abundant aeolian materials were trapped in these sediment sequences in the

Influencing mechanism and hydrogeological implications of water level fluctuation of lakes in the northern Qaidam Basin,Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The Qaidam Basin(QB)is a concentrated distribution area and chemical industrial bases of salt lakes in China.Lakes in the QB have been expanding during the past 20 years.Rapid lake expansion resulted in some considerable scientific issues on the protection of salt lake resources and infrastructure,and monitoring of hydrological processes at the lake-basin scale.Although the spatial-temporal trends of lake changes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(QTP)have been well documented,the underlying influencing mechanism and hydrogeological implications of rapid lake changes in the QB are not well understood.Three lakes in the northern QB were selected to investigate lake water level fluctuations on different time scales based on extensive in-situ monitoring and satellite observations.The influencing mechanism and hydrogeological implications of rapid changes of terminal lakes were discussed in combination with the reported increasing precipitation rate and mass balance of glaciers in the northern QTP.Results reveal the following:(1)the fluctuation pattern of Sugan Lake was asynchronous and out of phase with that of Xiao Qaidam and Toson lakes during the monitoring period;(2)Sugan Lake water rose gradually,and the rise interval was from late April to early July.In contrast,Xiao Qaidam and Toson lakes took on a rapid and steep rise,and the rise intervalwas from late July to September;(3)the influencing mechanisms for rapid lake fluctuations are controlled by different factors:glacier and snow melting with increasing temperature for Sugan Lake and increasing precipitation for Xiao Qaidam and Toson lakes;(4)in accordance with different intervals and influencing mechanisms of rapid lake expansions in the QB,hydrological risk precaution of lakes and corresponding river catchments was conducted in different parts of the basin.This study provided an important scientific basis for assessing the hydrological process and hydrological risk precaution,and protection of salt lake resources along with rapid lake expansions in the arid area.

Utilization and Exploitation of Lithium Resources in Salt Lakes and Suggestions for Development of Li Industries of China

1 Introduction Lithium and its compounds as a joint of rising industries new energy sources,new materials,and information technique have become more and more important recent years.Especially lithium ion batteries with bigger or smaller

Molecular Dynamic Regulation of Na and Mg Ions on Lithium Carbonate Crystallisation in Salt Lakes

Lithium carbonate (Li_(2)CO_(3)) was synthesised by adding sodium (Na) and magnesium (Mg) ions into a lithium chloride solution at different concentrations,followed by the addition of an appropriate sodium carbonate solution.Then,the morphology,purity and particle size of Li_(2)CO_(3) crystals were investigated.The Na and Mg ions had negligible and remarkable effects,respectively,on the product purity;however they both greatly influenced its morphology.Their effects on the nucleation and growth rates,the radial distribution function and the diffusion behaviour of the synthesised Li_(2)CO_(3) were investigated via molecular dynamics methods;the Na ions slowed down the crystal nucleation and growth rates,while the Mg ions accelerated them.Moreover,the Mg ions rendered the system short-range ordered and long-range disordered and also increased the diffusion coefficient.The results of this study showed that Mg ions are one of the most important factors influencing the purity and yield of Li_(2)CO_(3).

An Exploratory Analysis of Vegetation Strategies to Reduce Shallow Landslide Activity on Loess Hillslopes, Northeast Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China

Heavy summer rainfall induces significant soil erosion and shallow landslide activity on the loess hillslopes of the Xining Basin at the northeast margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. This study examines the mechanical effects of five native shrubs that can be used to reduce shallow landslide activity. We measured single root tensile resistance and shear resistance, root anatomical structure and direct shear and triaxial shear for soil without roots and five root- soil composite systems. Results show that Atriplex canescens （Pursh） Nutt. possessed the strongest roots, followed by Caragana korshinskii Kom., Zygophyllum xanthoxylon （Bunge） Maxim., Nitraria tangutorum Bobr. and Lycium chinense Mill. Single root strength and shear resistance relationships with root diameter are characterized by power or exponential relations, consistent with the Mohr- Coulomb law. Root mechanical strength reflects their anatomical structure, especially the percentage of phloem and xylem cells, and the degree and speed of periderm lignifications. The cohesion force of root- soil composite systems is notably higher than that of soil without roots, with increasing amplitudes of cohesion force for A. canescens, C. korshinskii, Z. xanthoxylon, N. tangutorurn and L. chinense of 75.9%, 75.1%, 36.2%, 24.6% and 17.0 % respectively. When subjected to shear forces, the soil without root samples show much greater lateral deformation thanthe root-soil composite systems, reflecting the restraining effects of roots. Findings from this paper indicate that efforts to reduce shallow landslides in this region by enhancing root reinforcement will be achieved most effectively using A. canescens and C. korshinskii.

The influence of plant root system architectural properties upon the stability of loess hillslopes,Northeast Qinghai,China

To investigate the influence of root system architectural properties of three indigenous （cold- adapted） shrubs on the hillslope stability of loess deposits in the Xining Basin, northeast part of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau （QTP）, indoor direct shear tests have been conducted on the remolded rooted soil of three shrubs. Test results show that root system architectural indices （root area ratio （RAR）, root length density （RLD） and root density （RD）） of the shrubs decline with depth and the relationship between RAR, RD and depth is exponential, while a power relationship describes the relationship between RLD and depth. The cohesion force of remolded rooted soil for the shrubs initially increases with depth, but it then demonstrates a slightly decreasing trend, which can be described with a power relationship. Power relationships also describe relationships between cohesion force and RAR, RLD and RD for the shrubs. As the growth period increases from lO to 17 months, the incremental increase in RAR is 48.32% ~ 21o.25% for Caragana korshinskii Kom and 0.56% ~ 166.85% for ZygophyUum xanthoxylon （Bunge） Maxim. This proportional increase is notably larger than that for RLD and RD. The increment in RAR is marginally greater for C. korshinskff than it is for Z. xanthoxylon. Correspondingly, the cohesion force incremental rates of remolded rooted soil for C. korshinskii and Z. xanthoxylon are 12.41% ~ 25.22% and 3.45% ~ 17.33% respectively. Meanwhile, as root content increases, the contribution by roots to cohesion force increases markedly until a threshold condition is reached.

OSL chronology and paleoclimatic implications of paleodunes in the middle and southwestern Qaidam Basin, Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

Aeolian sediments are widely distributed in the Qaidam Basin, northeastern Qinghai-Ti^tan Plateau （QTP）. The pale（xiunes are mainly located at the southeastern, middle and southwestem Qaidam Basin. However, ages ofpaleodunes in the middle and southwestern Qaidam Basin have not been well studied, although they are close to and might connect to the evolution of salt lakes in the cenWal basin. In this study, we use single aliquot regeneration （SAR） protocol of Optically Stimulated Luminescence （OSL） to date the dune sand in these two regions. The results show that： （1） Sand accumulation in these regions started at ca. 4-3 ka and lasted to ca. 0.5 ka when they were stabilized, due to the arid climate in the late Holocene. （2） The underlying fluvial sand was fomaed during deghcialion at 12.6±0.8 ka. （3） The stabilization pe- riods of the paleodunes correspond to stages of glacier advance in the northeastem QTP, during which lower temperatures caused the decrease of evapomlion and increase of the effective moisttwe, leading to an increase of vegetation cover and stabilizalion of the dunes.

Characteristics of root pullout resistance of Caragana korshinskii Kom.in the loess area of northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China

Roots exert pullout resistance under pullout force,allowing plants to resist uprooting.However,the pullout resistance characteristics of taproot-type shrub species of different ages remain unclear.In this study,in order to improve our knowledge of pullout resistance characteristics of taproot systems of shrub species,we selected the shrub species Caragana korshinskii Kom.in different growth periods as the research plant and conducted in situ root pullout test.The relationships among the maximum pullout resistance,peak root displacement,shrub growth period,and aboveground growth indices(plant height and plant crown breadth)were analyzed,as well as the mechanical process of uprooting.Pullout resistance of 4-15 year-old C.korshinskii ranged from 2.49(±0.25)to 14.71(±4.96)kN,and the peak displacement ranged from 11.77(±8.61)to 26.50(±16.09)cm.The maximum pullout resistance and the peak displacement of roots increased as a power function(R^(2)=0.9038)and a linear function(R^(2)=0.8242)with increasing age,respectively.The maximum pullout resistance and the peak displacement increased with increasing plant height;however,this relationship was not significant.The maximum pullout resistance increased exponentially(R^(2)=0.5522)as the crown breadth increased.There was no significant relationship between the peak displacement and crown breadth.The pullout resistance and displacement curve were divided into three stages:the initial nonlinear growth,linear growth,and nonlinear stages.Two modes of failure of a single root occurred when the roots were subjected to vertical loading forces:the synchronous breakage mode and the periderm preferential breakage mode.These findings provide a foundation for further investigation of the soil reinforcement and slope protection mechanisms of this shrub species in the loess area of northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China.

The Salt Attack Performance of Magnesium Oxychloride Cement Exposure to Three Kinds of Brines

Salt attack performance of magnesium oxychloride cement(MOC) in brine was investigated from the viewpoints of strength development and strength coefficient. Microstructure was studied using quantitative X-ray diffraction(QXRD), thermogravimetry(TG) and scanning electron microscopy(SEM). The results show that MOC mortars have outstanding salt attack performance after aging brine and raw brine immersion. The salt attack coefficients of MOC mortars are higher than 0.8, which is qualified for application in saline soil and salt lake area. The reason is that salt brine solution enters into the voids of MOC and plays a role of toughening and strengthening in the MOC.

Analysis of the distribution characteristics of ^(226)Ra and ^(228)Ra and their sources in the western part of Qinghai Lake

The ^226Ra and ^228Ra activities of Qinghai Lake surface water, groundwater, river water, suspended particles, and bottom sediments were measured in a gamma-ray spectrometer. The sources of ^226Ra and ^228Ra were discussed according to their distribution characteristics. ^226Ra and ^228Ra activities （dpm/（100 L）） ranged from 14.13±0.22 to 19.22±0.42 and 17.724-0.66 to 30.96：kl.47 in the surface water of the North Bay, respectively, and from 7.88±0.24 to 33.80±0.47 and 15.73±0.74 to 57.31±1.44, respectively, in the South Bay. The surface water near the estuary had a lower salinity and had a higher concentration of radium isotopes than the samples collected further away. The farther offshore the sample, the higher the salinity was, and the lower the radium isotope activity. The distribution of radium activities in the western part of Qinghai Lake is controlled by several factors, including Buha River runoff, desorption from suspended particles derived from the river, groundwater discharge, and a small amount of diffusion from the sediment.

Geochemistry of Brines from Salt Ore Deposits in Western Tarim Basin

In the geological evolution of the Tarim Basin, many transgressions and relictions happened. So there have been plentiful sources of salt. Moreover, because of uttermost drought, a lot of salt has been deposited. It is possible to find potash salt in this area. In our fieldwork, we have found salt and brine in western Tarim Basin. Based on a geological survey and the characteristics of sedimentary facies and paleogeography, this paper deals with the geochemical parameters and discusses the possibility of formation of potash salt in terms of the chemical analyses of samples collected from western Tarim Basin. Results of brine analysis lead to some conclusions: most of these salt brines have eluviated from very thick halite beds, mainly chloride-type salt and this kind of halite does not reach the stage of potash deposition in all aspects; WKSL (Wukeshalu) occupies a noticeable place, and we should attach importance to this district because there have been some indicators of the occurrence of potash deposits as viewed from the contents of Br and K. Finally, low Br contents are recognized in the Tarim Basin as a result of salt aggradation, and this point of view has been proved by the results of this experiment and the data available. It cannot depend upon the index of Br to judge the evolution stage of halite. We must look for other facies of potash except marine facies.

Recharge processes limit the resource elements of Qarhan Salt Lake in western China and analogues in the evaporite basins

The Qarhan Salt Lake(QSL)in western China is K-Sr-Li-B-Br-Rb multi-resource coexisting Quaternary brine deposits.Significant research efforts have been directed to the origin of K-Li resources and evolutionary history of the QSL.However,the study on the different sources,recharge processes,and differential distribution patterns for these resource elements in brine deposits is still inadequate.Therefore,we measured Li-B concentrations and H-O-Sr-B isotopic compositions of different waters(river,spring,and brine)from the QSL,combined with the reported K-Sr contents and multiple isotopes of waters,to discuss the recharge,source of K-Sr-Li-B and their spatial distributions,by analogy with other evaporite basins in the world.The results show that:(1)the K-Li-B-Sr elemental concentrations of brines and their spatial distribution in the QSL are diverse;(2)high K and Sr values are distributed in Dabuxun and Qarhan sections,respectively,which are controlled by Ca-Cl springs in the northern QSL;on the contrary,Li and B values are enriched in the Bieletan section and are charged by thermal springs in the Kunlun Mountains;(3)the formation and evolution of Ca-Cl and thermal springs constrain fundamentally on the recharge processes of K-Sr and Li-B elements in the terminal salt lakes of the Qaidam Basin(QB);(4)some analogues of recharge processes limit the resource elements of the QSL and other salt lakes(Da Qaidam,Lop Nur,Zhabuye,Atacama,and Guayatayoc)in the world provides a reference for the resource exploration in deep formation waters in the evaporite basins.

Extraction of Lithium from Salt Lake Brine using N523-TBP Mixture System

In this work, problems encountered by tri-butyl phosphate (TBP) in the industrialization of lithium extraction from salt lake brine were discussed in detail. The behavior of N, N-bi-(2-ethylhexyl) acetamide (N523) during lithium extraction was investigated, and its disadvantages were analyzed in the view of practical application. An N523-TBP mixture extraction system was proposed to alleviate or avoid the defects that N523 and TBP met when they were used separately. The optimal composition of this mixture extraction system was determined to be 20%N523-30%TBP-50% kerosene. The effects of brine acidity, Fe/Li molarity ratio, phase ratio and chloride ion concentration on lithium extraction efficiency were discussed. The operation conditions in single-stage extraction were optimized as brine acidity=0.05 mol/L, Fe/Li molarity ratio=1.3, and phase ratio=2. The high concentration of chloride ions in brine was beneficial for the extraction of lithium. The structure of the extracted complex was proposed as (LiFeCl 4 · n N523 · m TBP)·(2- n )N523 ·(2- m )TBP (m+n=2) by chemical analysis and slope-fitting methods. The extraction thermodynamic functions were calculated preliminarily, and the results suggested that the extraction process was an exothermic (ΔH <0) and spontaneous (ΔG <0) reaction, and the degree of disorder increased (ΔS >0) during the extraction process. This work will give some guidance to the lithium industry of Qinghai in both the fundamental theory and practical application.

A 94-ka Pollen Record of Vegetation Change in Qaidam Basin,Northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

1 Introduction The northeastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau(NE QTP),located at a triple junction of influences of the Asian summer monsoon,westerly jet stream and Siberian high,is of considerable significance with regard to regional responses to global climate change.Qarhan Salt Lake is the largest playa located in the central eastern

Simulated Dynamic Evaporation of Yiliping Salt Lake Brine

1 Introduction There are numerous salt lakes in western China(Zheng Mianping,et al.,2011).Yiliping playa on the western Qaidam Basin is a magnesium sulfate subtype dry salt lake with high concentrations of potassium,boron and lithium.

Evaluation of shallow groundwater discharge fluxes and nutrient fluxes in the west of Qinghai Lake using radium isotopes

We collected 14 samples and 9 samples for surface water in Quan bay and the north bay of Qinglai Lake respectively,as well as 11 samples for groundwater and 3 samples for river water.First the water samples were filtered through a

Boron isotope geochemistry of Bangor Co Salt Lake(central Tibet):implications for boron origin and uneven mixing of lake water

Boron is an essential,widely used,micronutrient element and is abundant in salt lakes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.The origin and distribution of boron brine deposits on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is an important foundation for B resource formation,evolution,and enrichment,which have long been the subject of debate.The boron isotope system is a sensitive geochemical tracer,making it useful for eff ectively and precisely tracking a wide range of geological processes and sources.This study investigates the major cations,[B],andδB values of samples(lake brine,river waters,and cold spring water)from the Bangor Co Lake which is a typical salt lake rich in boron in Tibet,China.There are magnitude-scale diff erences in[B]among diff erent sample types:river samples<cold spring water<<brine lakes.[B]values vary from 0.73 to~1113 mg/L.Similar to[B],theδB values of the samples exhibit magnitude-scale variations as[B],ranging from-7.35‰to+7.66‰.There are also magnitude-scale diff erences inδB among diff erent sample types.TheδB values of cold spring water are relatively low,and the values range from-1.26‰to-7.75‰.However,the river water samples and saline lakes have higher values,from 0.38‰to 4.62‰,and theδB values of river water samples are basically in the distribution range of those of Bangor Co Lake.This indicates that the sources of boron in Bangor Co Lake are mainly the recharge water with higherδB values and spring water with lowerδB values,and the boron sources and the uneven mixing of lake water are two reasons that account for the large change in theδB value of Bangor Co Lake.

Clay Mineralogical and Geochemical Studies of Detrital Rocks of the Upper Cretaceous Salt-bearing Strata,Simao Basin,SW China:Implication for Provenance and Source Weathering

1 Introduction Geological studies established on several sections in Lanping-Simao basin have shown that the salt-bearing strata of Mengyejing formation(Yunlong Fm.in Lanping basin)are constituted by an alternation of salt layers and interbedded facies.The latter consists mainly of mudstones,and mudstone-rich conglomerate.The mineralogy and geochemistry of salt-bearing beds and