Groundwater Modelling of Motloutse Alluvial Aquifer, Eastern Botswana

The potential groundwater reserve in alluvial aquifers and sandy river beds has not been well studied, and yet their benefit in meeting rural water supply demands cannot be underestimated. A three-dimensional steady-state finite difference numerical groundwater flow model was used to assess the groundwater resource potential on a one-kilometre river stretch scale along the Motloutse River catchment in eastern Botswana. The model area is a single-layer unconfined aquifer system. A uniform grid was laid over this phreatic aquifer, and an overall size of 50 columns x 54 rows was developed. The model yielded calibrated K values of 145 m/day and 11 m/day for the riverbed and riverbank sediments, respectively, and calibrated recharge and evaporation of 172 mm/yr and 120 mm/yr, respectively. A sustainable groundwater yield of 120 m3/day with the potential to irrigate an area of 2.4 hectares was determined. The result also shows that the Motloutse alluvial aquifer yields a safe yield of 29,400 m3 for a kilometre of river stretch.

The Prevalence of Overweight/Obesity and Related Comorbidities among HIV-Positive and HIV-Negative Patients Attending the Same Clinics in Gaborone, Botswana

Context: Antiretroviral therapy (ART) helps restore the health status of people living with HIV (PLHIV). Likewise, it increases the risk of overweight/obesity and related comorbidities among the recipients. In countries like Botswana where ±84% of PLHIV is on ART, the paucity of data comparing overweight/obesity between HIV-positive on ART and HIV-negative patients may impede clinical and policy decision-making. This study sought to estimate and compare: i) the prevalence of overweight/obesity between HIV-positive on ART and HIV-negative patients;ii) the prevalence of hypertension (HTN), diabetes mellitus (DM)/coronary heart disease (CHD) between HIV-positive patients on ART and HIV-negative patients attending same outpatient departments of general clinics in Gaborone, Botswana. Patients and Methods: Five hundred eighty-one (581) outpatients were recruited in four major clinics of Gaborone, Botswana, between June and July 2019;294 or 51% of them were HIV-negative and 287 or 49% were HIV-positive on ART. The prevalence of overweight/obesity and of HTN and DM/CHD were calculated and examined using stratified analysis. Subgroups were compared using Chi-square analysis with Yates correction or Fisher exact test and t-student test for continuous data. Results: Major findings after stratification of the study population by HIV status were: i) the prevalence of all categories of (BMI), including overweight/obesity, were comparable between HIV-negative-patients and HIV-positive. In fact, there were 24 (8.0%) cases of underweight among HIV-negative-Patients and 15(5%) cases among HIV-positive patients, p = 0.2;145 (49%) HIV-negative-patients and 128 (45%) HIV-positive, p = 0.07 cases of normal weight;72 (25%) HIV-negative-patients and 87 (30%) HIV-positive, p = 0.08, were overweight;53 (18%) HIV-negative-patients and 57 (20%) HIV-positive, p = 0.12, were obese;125 (43%) HIV-negative patients and 144 (50%) HIV-positive, p=0.06 were overweight/obese;ii) the prevalence of HTN and DM/CHD among HIV-positive-patients were significantly lower (p < 0.05) compared to HIV-negative patients: There were 32 (10.9%) cases of HTN among HIV-negative patients compared to 18 (6.3%) cases of HTN among HIV-positive patients, p = 0.001;32 (11%) cases of DM/CHD HIV-negative patients compared to 4 (1.4%) cases of DM/CHD among HIV-positive patients, p = 0.001. Conclusion: the prevalence of overweight/obesity observed between HIV-negative and HIV-positive patients may suggest that the two groups shared the same exposure factors. That HTN and DM/CHD prevalence was lower among HIV-positive compared to HIV-negative patients, is possibly due to interplay factors of ART, HIV or the host population. Further studies are, however, recommended for clarifications.

Diversity, Population Structure and Regeneration Status of Woody Species in Dry Woodlands Adjacent to <i>Molapo</i>Farms in Northern Botswana

The diversity, population structure and regeneration status of woody species were studied at Xobe and Shorobe Villages in northern Botswana. A total of 130 and 111 quadrats of 20 × 20 m size were laid down at 50 m intervals along parallel line transects at Xobe and Shorobe, respectively. A total of 46 woody species, 27 from Xobe and 41 from Shorobe were recorded. Of the 46 woody species, only 22 were recorded at both sites. Ten genera and six families were found only in Shorobe while one genus and one family were found only in Xobe. The diversity and evenness of woody species were 1.5 and 0.5 in Xobe, respectively, and 2.18 and 0.6 in Shorobe, respectively. The similarities of woody species in terms of richness of species, genera and families at the two sites were about 50%, 54% and 56%, respectively. The mean densities of woody species were 2745.7 ± 1.35 and 4269.7 ± 36 individuals ha-1 at Xobe and Shorobe, respectively. Despite differences in absolute numbers, the total mean densities of woody species at both sites did not exhibit significant (P = 0.35) differences. At both sites, woody species were dominated by individuals of only a few species, which also exhibited the highest values of important value index. The population structure patterns of the woody species were categorized into five groups. The species in the first group exhibited reverse J-shaped distribution, which indicates stable population structures. The species in the second group showed relatively good recruitment but the regeneration is negatively affected. The species in the other three groups exhibited hampered regeneration as a result of disturbances caused by humans, domestic animals and annual fires. The parameters assessed indicate the need for attention and appropriate management interventions by the relevant national authorities at various levels.

Stand Structure, Diversity and Regeneration Status of Woody Species in Open and Exclosed Dry Woodland Sites around <i>Molapo</i>Farming Areas of the Okavango Delta, Northeastern Botswana

Stand structure, diversity and regeneration status of woody species were investigated in open and exclosed dry woodland sites in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe, northeastern Botswana. A total of 105, 111 and 130 quadrats, measuring 20 × 20 m each, were laid down along parallel line transects in the three sites, respectively, to collect data. A total of 47 species, representing 16 families and 24 genera, were recorded in the study sites. Of these, 33 species representing 13 families and 20 genera, 41 species representing 15 families and 23 genera and 27 species representing 10 families and 14 genera were encountered in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe, respectively. The most diverse family was Fabaceae followed by Combretaceae and Tiliaceae at all the three sites. The most diverse genus was Acacia, followed by Combretum and Grewia. The diversity of woody species in the study sites were 2.18, 2.15 and 1.5 in Shorobe, Island Safari and Xobe, respectively, while their corresponding evenness values were 0.6, 0.6 and 0.5, respectively. The mean densities of the woody species encountered in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe were 2629, 4271 and 2745 individuals ha&#451, respectively. The five densest species were Colophospermum mopane, Dichrostachys cinerea, Acacia tortilis, Philenoptera violacea and Terminalia prunioides in Island Safari, C. mopane, A. tortilis, A. erioloba, P. violacea and D. cinerea in Shorobe and Acacia mellifera, A. tortilis, P. nelsii, A. luederitzii and A. erubescens in Xobe. The highest important value index values were exhibited by C. mopane, D. cinerea, A. tortilis, P. violacea and T. prunioides in Island Safari, C. mopane, A. erioloba, A. tortilis, P. violacea and C. imberbe in Shorobe, and A. mellifera, A. tortilis, P. nelsii and A. luederitzii in Xobe. The alarming result was the fact that 71%, 80% and 85% of the woody species recorded in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe, respectively, exhibited hampered regeneration and, thus, unhealthy population structures. Therefore, there is an urgent need to address the observed unhealthy population structures of the woody species through investigation of the major causes of their hampered regeneration, and also designing measures that will facilitate natural and artificial regeneration of these species at the three study sites.

Regionalization of Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves in Botswana

A regional analysis of design storms, defined as the expected rainfall intensity for given storm duration and return period, is conducted to determine storm Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) relationships. The ultimate purpose was to determine IDF curves for homogeneous regions identified in Botswana. Three homogeneous regions were identified based on topographic and rainfall characteristics which were constructed with the K-Means Clustering algorithm. Using the mean annual rainfall and the 24 hr annual maximum rainfall as an indicator of rainfall intensity for each homogeneous region, IDF curves and maps of rainfall intensities of 1 to 24 hr and above durations were produced. The Gamma and Lognormal probability distribution functions were able to provide estimates of rainfall depths for low and medium return periods (up to 100 years) in any location in each homogeneous region of Botswana.

Production, Composition and Fuel Properties of Tallow Biodiesel: A Case of Botswana

Biodiesel has been identified globally as presenting an opportunity for development of a sustainable fuel source, especially in light of international pressures for greenhouse gas emission reductions and the unpredictability of availability and pricing of fossil fuels. For Botswana, the internal development of biodiesel could signify a positive move away from a dependency on imported fuel products, provide sustainable employment and contribute to poverty alleviation measures. In the current study, biodiesel was synthesized from animal fat and tested for fuel properties. Results have shown a biodiesel production yield of 93%, chemical composition that is typical of a biodiesel fuel, and fuel properties that are largely comparable to those of petroleum diesel.

Emergency Department Waiting Times and Determinants of Prolonged Length of Stay in a Botswana Referral Hospital

Introduction: Emergency medicine is a critical component of quality public health service. In fact length of stay and waiting times in the Emergency department are key indicators of quality. The aim of this study was to determine waiting times and determinants of prolonged length of stay (LOS) in the Princess Marina Hospital Emergency Department. Methods: This was a retrospective observational study. It was done at Princess Marina, a referral hospital in Gaborone, Botswana. Triage forms of patients who presented between 19/11/ 2018 and 18/12/2018 were reviewed. Data from patient files was used to determine time duration from triage to being reviewed by a doctor, time duration from review by emergency doctor to patients’ disposition and the time duration from patient’s triage to disposition (length of stay). Prolonged length of stay was defined as duration > 6 hours. Results: A total of 1052 files repre- senting patients seen over a 1-month period were reviewed. 72.5% of the patients had a prolonged length of stay. The median emergency doctor waiting time was 4.5 hours (IQR 1.6 - 8.3 hours) and the maximum was 27.1 hours. The median length of stay in the emergency department was 9.6 hours (IQR 5.8 - 14.6 hours) and the maximum was 45.9 hours. Patient’s age (AOR 1.01), mental status (AOR 0.61), admission to internal medicine service (AOR 5.12) and pediatrics admissions (AOR 0.11) were significant predictors of prolonged length of stay in the emergency department. Conclusion: Princess Marina Hospital emergency department waiting times and length of stay are long. Age, normal mental status and internal medicine admission were independent predictors of prolonged stay (>6 hours). Admission to the pediatrics service was associated with shorter length of stay. There is a need for interventions to address the long waiting times and length of stay. Interventions should particularly focus on the identified predictors.

Waiting Times and Length of Stay of Trauma Patients in a Botswana Referral Hospital Emergency Department

Background: Mortality and morbidity due to trauma are a significant public health challenge. There is paucity of data on the waiting times and length of stay (LOS) of trauma patients in emergency departments in Botswana. The aim of this study was to determine the Emergency Department (ED) waiting times and LOS of trauma patients at Princess Marina Hospital in Gaborone, Botswana. Methods: This was a retrospective medical records review of waiting times (time from triage to review by ED medical officer) and LOS (time from triage to disposition from the emergency department). The waiting times for the different assigned acuities were assessed against the South African Triage System (SATS) standards. All trauma patients seen from 19/11/2018 to 18/12/2018 were included in the study. Prolonged length of stay was defined as duration > 6 hours. Categorical data was summarized with frequencies while numeric data was summarized with medians and interquartile ranges. Results: A total of 187 trauma patients’ files were analyzed. Of these, 72 (38.5%) were females. The median waiting time was 3.8 hours and the maximum was 19.2 hours. The median length of stay (LOS) was 8.8 hours with a maximum of 37.2 hours. Only 53 (28.3%) of the participants had a LOS of less than 6 hours. None of the emergent patients were seen immediately. Only 5 (4.0%) of the very urgent patients were seen within the target of 10 minutes. Finally, only 10 (20.4%) of urgent patients were seen within the target time of 1 hour. Conclusion: The waiting times and length of stay in Princess Marina Hospital were mostly above the recommended standards. Urgent interventions are needed to reduce waiting times and length of stay for trauma patients. More studies are needed to explore the sources of delay and investigate possible solutions to this public health challenge.

<i>Prosopis</i>L. Invasion in the South-Western Region of Botswana: The Perceptions of Rural Communities and Management Options

This study was aimed to determine the extent to which Prosopis species had invaded four settlements (Bokspits, Rappelspan, Vaalhoek and Struizendam) located in the Kgalagadi Desert south west of Botswana, investigate the perceptions of the communities about the existence of the species in their environment and assess possible control options for the spread of Prosopis plants in the area. Prosopis plants were sampled in 42 quadrats of 625 m2 along a 70 km Prosopis invasion gradient from Struizendam to Rappelspan. Using the Global Positioning System (GPS), the locations of all quadrats were established. The distribution map of Prosopis plants was produced using ArcGIS 9.2 (ESRI Inc.). Questionnaire survey and focused group discussions were used to collect data on the perceptions of rural communities about the species. A total of 342 respondents comprising 139 males and 203 females were interviewed, and four focussed group discussions were conducted. The results indicated that the invasion of Prosopis species was prominent in and around settlements suggesting that anthropogenic activities had a significant role in the spread of Prosopis plants in the area. The perceptions of rural communities about Prosopis plants appeared to be moulded by the impacts of the plants on their livelihoods as well as their micro-economic status. The respondents (71.30%) expressed the view that the invasion of Prosopis species negatively affected the livelihoods of the communities in the study area. They identified eradication as the preferred method of controlling the spread of Prosopis plants. On the contrary, this study recommended the integrated environmental management paradigm as the best options for the control of the spread of Prosopis plants in the area.

Assessment of awareness and knowledge of schistosomiasis among school-aged children(6-13 years)in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

Background:Schistosomiasis is a global health problem affecting 250 million people,with 90%in Sub-Saharan Africa.In Botswana,the burden is high in the Okavango delta because of the water channels.WHO recommends integrated measures,including access to clean water,sanitation,health education,and drugs to control and eliminate schistosomiasis.Gauging knowledge and awareness of schistosomiasis for School-Aged Children(SAC)is crucial.Our study aimed at assessing knowledge and awareness of schistosomiasis among SAC in the Okavango Delta.Methods:A cross-sectional survey assessing awareness and knowledge of schistosomiasis in schools was conducted.480 questionnaires were administered to gather demographic profiles,awareness,and knowledge of risky behaviors.Chi-square and descriptive analysis determined the differences in SAC`s awareness and knowledge levels based on localities,gender,age,and health education.Results:The results showed a low awareness level,with only(42%)of respondents having heard about the disease and(52%)knowing its local name.Younger children from Sekondomboro(83%)and Samochima lacked awareness,while children from Mohembo(77%)and those who had health education(70%)demonstrated significant awareness levels(P≤0.001).Seventy-two percent(72%)lacked knowledge of the cause and(95%)did not know the disease life-cycle.Children from Xakao(91%),(85%)Sepopa,and(75%)of younger children did not know haematuria is a symptom of the disease.Older and SAC with health education were more likely to know that swimming is a risk factor(P≤0.001)and(P≤0.05)respectively.Conclusions:Although respondents from four schools demonstrated some level of awareness of the disease,and knowledge of risky behaviors,the study showed a lack of in-depth knowledge on the life-cycle and cause of the diseases.We,therefore,recommend the implementation of an integrated approach to health education and improvement in access to clean water and sanitation in all study areas.

Paris agreement on climate change and Botswana's Vision 2036:an examination of linkages

Sustainable use of natural resources and sustainable development are concepts that are gaining momentum globally in the advent of global warming and climate change. The threshold for the entry in force of the Paris Agreement on Climate Change was achieved exactly 5 days after the unveiling of Botswana's Vision 2036 document. This development framework envisages sustainable economic development and climate change adaptation. This article uses exploratory research methodology of systematic document analysis to analyze these principles in the context of Botswana. It investigates government's intentions in achieving the third pillar of the national vision. Botswana has declared its intensions to reduce carbon emissions by 15% by 2030 through the intended nationally determined contributions. While the country's ambitions are largely forward-looking and aligned with those of the Paris Agreement, the economic diversification plans of Botswana threaten to potentially contribute significantly to the emission of greenhouse gases. The article applies sustainability and/or sustainable development theory in examining the relationship between the Paris Agreement and Botswana's vision. It concludes that there is link between the two documents, both of which are anchored of the development which is environmentally sustainable. It further concludes that developing nations should make international commitments which are aligned to their developmental plans.

Microbial Quality Assessment and Predominant Microorganism of Biltong Produced in Butcheries in Gaborone, Botswana

Biltong is a dried ready to eat meat product that is produced and consumed to a large extent in Botswana. A study was undertaken with the objective of determining the microbial quality and isolating and identifying the predominant bacteria and fungi associated with the small scale production of biltong by local Butcheries. The physico-chemical characteristics of the commercially prepared beef samples were characterized to determine if they had a bearing on the microbial quality. Electron microscopy was used to characterize microbial colonization of the biltong. The total viable count of the biltong samples were found to range from 2 - 7 log10 cfu/g with a mean plate count of 8.9 × 105 cfu/g. About 42% of the samples had counts higher than 105 cfu/g, which is the recommended upper limit of acceptability as prescribed by the Public Health Laboratory Service guidelines. Bacteria from the genera Staphylococcus and Bacillus were found to be the predominant taxa associated with the biltong, a trend consistent with findings in previous studies on biltong. A total of 14 species were identified from the genus Staphylococcus with 20% of all bacterial strains identified as Staphylococcus saprophyticus. Four biltong samples were found to comprise Bacillus cereus, a well known food-borne pathogen associated with food poisoning. The predominant moulds and yeasts were found to conform to findings from previous studies conducted on intermediate moisture meat products with the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Candida being common. The predominant fungal species were Candida catenulate, Candida pararugosa, Aspergillus restrictus and Aspergillus niger. Some strains of Aspergillus niger are known to produce mycotoxins which compounds the potential risk associated with biltong as a ready to eat meat product.

Healthcare Providers' Perceptions of the Sexual and Reproductive Health Needs (Including Family Planning) of Elderly Women from Selected Sites in Botswana

Much of the sexual and reproductive health services and service delivery including family planning target women of child bearing ages (15 - 49 years) and sometimes men. Hardly are there programmes/interventions that specifically target the needs of the elderly women (50 years and above), yet this group has serious sexual and reproductive health needs as many of them are still sexually active. This cross-sectional study obtained the views of a stratified random sample of 169 healthcare providers (doctors, nurses and pharmacists) from four selected sites, Gaborone, Selibe Phikwe, Barolong and Kweneng East health districts in Botswana on how the healthcare system in the selected sites is meeting the SRH/FP needs of the elderly women. The study found out that while overwhelming majority of the healthcare providers feltthat the healthcare system has no programme that specifically target the SRH/FP needs of this significant others and their SRH/FP needs are not being met ,less than 15% indicated that Pap smear screening as well as screening of cervical cancer were on-going. Although there are SRH/FP services available in the healthcare system, the elderly women are minimally accessing these services. Only condom, combined oral contraceptives, progestogen-only pills, treatment of STIs, screening for HIV/AIDS and screening for cervical cancer are accessed and information is also limited to these services. Reasons given by the healthcare providers for the non-accessibility of these services were cultural diversity (80%), people's sexual behavior and perceptions about sex (79%), lack of knowledge about the desired SRH/FP services (76%), religion (73%) and gender issues (62%). The study, advocates as part of policy options to mitigate the obstacles to accessing SRH/FP services, the expansion of counseling programmes, screening and treatment for breast cancer, public awareness campaigns, production and circulation of appropriate educational materials, effective training of healthcare providers and the establishment of separate clinic days for the elderly women' SRH/FP services.

Modification of soil properties by <i>Prosopis</i>L. in the Kalahari Desert, South-Western Botswana

The aim of this research was to investigate the interactions between Prosopis plants and soils in the Kalahari area, south west of Botswana. The underlying assumptions of the research were that Prosopis plants significantly enhanced the nutrient content and improved the condition of soils in the study area, and that the height and canopy size of Prosopis plants affected the interactions between Prosopis plants and the soils. Firstly, soil samples were collected under 42 randomly selected Prosopis plant canopies and in the spaces between Prosopis plant canopies at the depth of 0 -20 cmand 60 –80 cm. Secondly, soil samples were collected under 45 randomly selected Prosopis plant canopies of three different categories of height and canopy size at the depth of 0 -10 cm. The soil samples were analysed for soil organic carbon, pH, total nitrogen (N), electrical conductivity (EC), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and magnesium (Mg). Soil collected under Prosopis plant canopies and in the spaces between Prosopis plant canopies showed statistically significant difference in the soil organic carbon content (F = 2.68, P = 0.05, α = 0.05), pH (F = 44.81, P α = 0.05) and electrical conductivity (EC) (F = 3.75, P = 0.01, α = 0.05). Statistically significant difference was also observed in the comparison of soils existing under Classes 1, 2 and 3 Prosopis plant canopies in relation to pH and EC (F = 6.56, P = 0.01 and F = 4.77, P = 0.01 respectively at α = 0.05). Therefore, it was concluded that the fundamental assumptions of the study were valid.

Spatial Variability of Selected Soil Properties in Relation to Different Land Uses in Northern Kgalagadi (Matsheng), Botswana

Spatial variability of selected soil attributes were investigated in the Kgalagadi region. Soil samples were collected along transects at Hukuntsi, Tshane, Lokgwabe and Lehututu at 50 m, 200 m, 500 m, 1000 m, 2000 m and 5000 m from water sources located in areas of different land use types. Sampling depth was 0 - 10 cm, 50 - 70 cm and 100 - 120 cm. Samples were analysed for pH, EC, SOC, and P. Soil pH and EC were relatively high around CGA Pans, while SOC and P were generally low in the whole study area. It was concluded that the assumptions that different land use types existed under various soil environments with different soil properties, and that different land use types influence soil characteristics in various ways in the study area were not true.

Menopausal Perceptions and Experiences of Older Women from Selected Sites in Botswana

Objective: To assess the menopausal perceptions and experiences of older women from selected sites in Botswana. Design: This study used snowball sampling to recruit 444 older women in four health districts of Botswana. Trained research assistants administered a structured questionnaire to determine respondents’ menopausal symptoms, perceptions and knowledge of menopause and sexual experiences. Multiple logistic regression procedures were used to evaluate the association of socio-demographic characteristics with knowledge of menopause and factor analysis was used to cluster menopausal symptoms. Results: Participants had low levels of knowledge and awareness of menopause. The three most common changes identified were weakening of bones (78%), changes in sex drive (69.6%), and difficulty working (56.2%). The majority of respondents perceived menopause as freedom from menstrual cycles (85%) and cost saving (65%). Employment status was significantly associated with knowledge of menopause. The mean age at menopause was 48.9 years. With an average life expectancy of 54.5 years, there remains about 6 years of postmenopausal life. Recommendation: Public health care systems in and beyond Botswana should mobilize resources and take measures to improve older women’s awareness and knowledge about menopause-related changes through educational training and guidance to maintain active, healthy lives.

Faecal Sludge Management in Botswana: A Review of Current Practices and Policies Using the Case of Gaborone Low Income Areas

In the past sanitation was the responsibility of Local Authorities or councils with the Department of Waste Management and Pollution Control (DWMPC). Pollution of groundwater in Botswana is currently forcing the Government of Botswana (GoB) to abandon pit latrine construction and Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) emptying services in peri-urban areas. Currently Government has embarked on the expensive and unsustainable construction of sewer systems that require peri-urban communities to pay for connection fees. Most rural communities cannot afford these fees and since Botswana is a water scarce country, sewer connection may be costly for the country. This paper aims to review current practices, policies and challenges facing Botswana in Faecal Sludge Management (FSM). A desktop review was carried out to review policies, regulations, guidelines and strategies on waste management. A pretested questionnaire was administered among 50 randomly selected households to assess current practices in sludge management from two suburbs in Gaborone. Key informant interviews were undertaken among water and sanitation stakeholders to establish roles on waste management and faecal sludge management. Despite the disjointed efforts by stakeholders, Botswana has the potential to improve the FSM in the country. Though unsafe, FSM/pit emptying has the potential to provide income and employment to both the rural and urban poor and making it safe may have wider economic benefits.

Seismicity Study of Botswana from 1966 to 2012

The history of Botswana’s major seismic events has been initiated by two earthquakes that occurred on the 11th of September and 11th of October 1952 with ML Richter magnitudes of 6.1 and 6.7, respectively, in the Okavango Delta Region (ODR). Not much is known and well documented about the seismicity of a larger coverage of Botswana primarily because over the years, local seismic stations were biased to the north-western part of Botswana, to monitor the more seismogenic ODR. The objective of this study is to use data from the International Seismological Centre (ISC) bulletin for the period 1966-2012 to estimate the relative size distribution of seismic events (b-value), the rate of seismic activity (a-value), and associated stress condition prevailing in Botswana to assist in the quest of hazard mitigation. This study shows that micro-seismic activities of magnitude ranging from 1.3 to 5.7 are distributed not only on the northern part of Botswana, but also in other parts of the country such as the Southern (including Kweneng East and West), Central and Eastern Botswana. Based on 327 events extracted from data compiled by the ISC, the frequency-magnitude distribution (FMD) of earthquakes in Botswana from 1966 to 2012 was estimated with b-value and a-value for the entire catalogue found to be 1.2 and 6.3, respectively, implying a region of low stress dominated by small to moderate events. The minimum completeness magnitude (MC), a value that indicates the lowest magnitude above which all seismic events are reliably recorded was found to be 3.8. From this analysis, annual probabilities of occurrence for M4 and M5 events were found to be 67.2% and 4.3%, respectively, while M6 or larger event has an annual probability of 0.3%.

The Burden of HIV-Related Admissions and Mortality at Princess Marina Hospital, Botswana in 2000: A Pre-Combination Antiretroviral Therapy Era

Background: human immune virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) have been recognized in Botswana for the last three decades, however, combination anti-retroviral therapy (cART) was only introduced after 2000. Facility-based historical data of the burden of HIV/AIDS- related conditions pre-cART have so far not been analyzed. Objective: To analyze the burden of HIV-related admissions and HIV-related deaths, and identify the socio-demographic factors associated with HIV/AIDS deaths at Princess Marina Hospital (PMH) in the year 2000. Methods: A retrospective review of medical files was carried out between May and June 2014. Nine thousand seven hundred and forty-six (9746) records were analyzed for the year for 2000. Cases were identified as documented HIV/AIDS as per medical notes and/or documentation of any of the conditions listed in sections B20-B24 of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD 10 B20-B24). Outcomes were the percentages of HIV-related admissions and HIV-related deaths out of all admissions and deaths. The in-hospital case fatality rate (CFR) was also calculated. Log-binomial regression models were used to determine the most significant factors associated with HIV-related admission and death. Results: The percentages of HIV-related admissions and HIV-related deaths were 4.1% (403/9746) and 11.3% (80/707), respectively. The in-hospital HIV-CFR was 19.9% (80/403). Adjusted log-binomial models identified the most significant protective factors for HIV-related admission were female sex and cART use while age >15 years old was the most significant risk factor. The se of cART was significant protective factor for HIV-associated death while age older than 15 years was the most significant risk factor. Conclusion: There was a significant burden of HIV-related admissions and deaths in PMH before wide-scale cART use in Botswana. This study highlights the increased risk of hospital admission for HIV-positive patients and underlines the need for cART to prevent deaths. Further studies evaluating the impact of wide-scale cART roll out are needed.