Pathogenic mechanisms of pancreatitis

Pancreatitis is inflammation of pancreas and caused by a number of factors including pancreatic duct obstruction, alcoholism, and mutation in the cationic trypsinogen gene. Pancreatitis is represented as acute pancreatitis with acute inflammatory responses and; chronic pan-creatitis characterized by marked stroma formation with a high number of infiltrating granulocytes(such as neutrophils, eosinophils), monocytes, macrophages and pancreatic stellate cells(PSCs). These inflammatory cells are known to play a central role in initiating and promoting inflammation including pancreatic fibrosis, i.e., a major risk factor for pancreatic cancer. A number of inflammatory cytokines are known to involve in pro-moting pancreatic pathogenesis that lead pancreatic fibrosis. Pancreatic fibrosis is a dynamic phenomenon that requires an intricate network of several autocrine and paracrine signaling pathways. In this review, we have provided the details of various cytokines and molecular mechanistic pathways(i.e., Transforming growth factor-β/SMAD, mitogen--activated protein kinases, Rho kinase, Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators, and phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase) that have a critical role in the activation of PSCs to promote chronic pancreatitis and trigger the phenomenon of pancreatic fibrogenesis. In this review of literature, we discuss the involvement of several pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as in interleukin(IL)-1, IL-1β, IL-6, IL--8 IL-10, IL-18, IL--33 and tumor necrosis factor-α, in the pathogenesis of disease. Our review also highlights the significance of several experimental animal models that have an important role in dissecting the mechanistic pathways operating in the development of chronic pancreatitis, including pancreatic fibrosis. Additionally, we provided several intermediary molecules that are involved in major signaling pathways that might provide target molecules for future therapeutic treatment strategies for pancreatic pathogenesis.

G-WADI—the first decade

The G-WADI network by UNESCO promotes the global capacity for management of water resources in arid and semi-arid areas. The primary aim has been to build a comprehensive global network to promote regional and international cooperation so as to in- crease knowledge and improve management practices through the sharing of information. The G-WADI objectives and achieve- ments of the past 10 years are reviewed. A number of key initiatives have been implemented^the formation of five regional net- works, the creation of a central G-WADI web site, promotion of near-real-time rainfall distribution software enhanced by the in- clusion of satellite based precipitation estimations, as well as workshop and web-based activities on chemical and isotopic tracers and on rain water harvesting. Two workshops on surface and on groundwater modeling, supported by publications have been held in India and China. The Asian G-WADI network remains very active, but activities in the other three regions are developing （Af- rica, Arab Region, Latin America and the Caribbean）.