Practical Considerations and Limitations of Using Leaf and Canopy Temperature Measurements as a Stomatal Conductance Proxy:Sensitivity across Environmental Conditions,Scale,and Sample Size

Stomatal conductance(gs)is a crucial component of plant physiology,as it links plant productivity and water loss through transpiration.Estimating gs indirectly through leaf temperature(Tl)measurement is common for reducing the high labor cost associated with direct gs measurement.However,the relationship between observed Tl and gs can be notably affected by local environmental conditions,canopy structure,measurement scale,sample size,and gs itself.

Simulation of Automatically Annotated Visible and Multi-/Hyperspectral Images Using the Helios 3D Plant and Radiative Transfer Modeling Framework

Deep learning and multimodal remote and proximal sensing are widely used for analyzing plant and crop traits,but many of these deep learning models are supervised and necessitate reference datasets with image annotations.Acquiring these datasets often demands experiments that are both labor-intensive and time-consuming.Furthermore,extracting traits from remote sensing data beyond simple geometric features remains a challenge.To address these challenges,we proposed a radiative transfer modeling framework based on the Helios 3-dimensional(3D)plant modeling software designed for plant remote and proximal sensing image simulation.The framework has the capability to simulate RGB,multi-/hyperspectral,thermal,and depth cameras,and produce associated plant images with fully resolved reference labels such as plant physical traits,leaf chemical concentrations,and leaf physiological traits.Helios offers a simulated environment that enables generation of 3D geometric models of plants and soil with random variation,and specification or simulation of their properties and function.This approach differs from traditional computer graphics rendering by explicitly modeling radiation transfer physics,which provides a critical link to underlying plant biophysical processes.Results indicate that the framework is capable of generating high-quality,labeled synthetic plant images under given lighting scenarios,which can lessen or remove the need for manually collected and annotated data.Two example applications are presented that demonstrate the feasibility of using the model to enable unsupervised learning by training deep learning models exclusively with simulated images and performing prediction tasks using real images.