A review of shear strength models for rock joints subjected to constant normal stiffness

The typical shear behaviour of rough joints has been studied under constant normal load/stress （CNL） boundary conditions, but recent studies have shown that this boundary condition may not replicate true practical situations. Constant normal stiffness （CNS） is more appropriate to describe the stress-strain response of field joints since the CNS boundary condition is more realistic than CNL. The practical implications of CNS are movements of unstable blocks in the roof or walls of an underground excavation, reinforced rock wedges sliding in a rock slope or foundation, and the vertical movement of rock-socketed concrete piles. In this paper, the highlights and limitations of the existing models used to predict the shear strength/behaviour of joints under CNS conditions are discussed in depth.

Performance of marine clay stabilised with vacuum pressure: Based on Queensland experience

Stabilising soft marine clay and estuarine soils via vacuum preloading has become very popular in Australasia over the past decades because it is a cost-effective and time-efficient approach.In recent times,new land on areas outside but adjacent to existing port amenities,the Fisherman Islands at the Port of Brisbane(POB),was reclaimed to cater for an increase in trade activities.A vacuum preloading method combined with surcharge to stabilise the deep layers of soil was used to enhance the application of prefabricated vertical drains(PVDs).This paper describes the performance of this combined surcharge fill and vacuum system under the embankment and also compares it with a surcharge loading system to demonstrate the benefits of vacuum pressure over conventional fill.The performance of this embankment is also presented in terms of field monitoring data,and the relative performance of the vacuum together with non-vacuum systems is evaluated.An analytical solution to radial consolidation with time-dependent surcharge loading and vacuum pressure is also presented in order to predict the settlement and associated excess pore water pressure(EPWP)of deposits of thick soft clay.

The mechanism and effects of subgrade fluidisation under ballasted railway tracks

The rapid growth in railway infrastructure and the construction of high-speed heavy-haul rail network,especially on ground that is basically unsuitable,poses challenges for geotechnical engineers because a large part of the money invested in the development of railway lines is often spent on track maintenance.In fact around the world,the mud pumping of subgrade fines is one of the common reasons why track performance deteriorates and track stability is hindered.This article presents a series of laboratory tests to examine following aspects of mud pumping:(1)the mechanisms of subgrade fluidisation under undrained condition,(2)the effects of mud pumping on the engineering characteristics of ballast,and(3)the use of vertical drains to stabilize subgrade under cyclic loads.The undrained cyclic triaxial testing on vulnerable soft subgrade was performed by varying the cyclic stress ratio(CSR)from 0.2 to 1.0 and the loading frequency f from 1.0 to 5.0 Hz.It is seen from the test results that for a specimen compacted at an initial dry density of 1790 kg/m3,the top portion of the specimen fluidises at CSR=0.5,irrespective of the applied loading frequency.Under cyclic railway loading,the internal redistribution of water at the top of the subgrade layer softens the soil and also reduces its stiffness.In response to these problems,this paper explains how the inclusion of vertical drains in soft subgrade will help to prevent mud pumping by alleviating the build-up of excess pore pressures under moving train loads.

An approach to measure infill matric suction of irregular infilled rock joints under constant normal stiffness shearing

Rock joints infilled with sediments can strongly influence the strength of rock mass. As infilled joints often exist under unsaturated condition, this study investigated the influence of matric suction of infill on the overall joint shear strength. A novel technique that allows direct measurement of matric suction of infill using high capacity tensiometers(HCTs) during direct shear of infilled joints under constant normal stiffness(CNS) is described. The CNS apparatus was modified to accommodate the HCT and the procedure is explained in detail. Joint specimens were simulated by gypsum plaster using threedimensional(3D) printed surface moulds, and filled with kaolin and sand mixture prepared at different water contents. Shear behaviours of both planar infilled joints and rough joints having joint roughness coefficients(JRCs) of 8-10 and 18-20 with the ratios of infill thickness to asperity height(t/a)equal to 0.5 were investigated. Matric suction shows predominantly unimodal behaviour during shearing of both planar and rough joints, which is closely associated with the variation of unloading rate and volumetric changes of the infill material. As expected, two-peak behaviour was observed for the rough joints and both peaks increased with the increase of infill matric suction. The results suggest that the contribution of matric suction of infill on the joint peak normalised shear stress is relatively independent of the joint roughness.

Radial consolidation characteristics of soft undisturbed clay based on large specimens

In recent years, reconstituted small samples have often been used to assess the performance of radial consolidation due to prefabricated vertical drains(PVDs), but the permeability and compressibility of samples of undisturbed soil often differ from those of the remoulded ones. The problem seems more complex in marine environment due to the presence of random coarse particles including gravels, shells and natural partings. Performing small-scale laboratory experiment with reconstituted samples, especially in marine environment, cannot predict the exact soil behaviour in the field. This paper describes an experimental programme that measures radial consolidation using a conventional Rowe cell and a largescale consolidometer, where the samples of undisturbed soil obtained from a site along the Pacific Highway(north of Sydney) were compared using measured settlements and excess pore pressures.Moreover, this paper highlights the implications of the smear effect and sample size influence, which are imperative in translating the laboratory testing practices to actual real-life behaviour. The effect of vacuum pressure on the coefficient of radial consolidation of a large-scale undisturbed test specimen is also discussed. The paper demonstrates that the extent of smear zone in the field can be very similar to the large-scale laboratory consolidation test using a scaled-down drain and mandrel, but considerably different from the data obtained for small laboratory specimens.

Recycled materials in railroad substructure: an energy perspective

Given that the current ballasted tracks in Australia may not be able to support faster and significantly heavier freight trains as planned for the future,the imminent need for innovative and sustainable ballasted tracks for transport infrastructure is crucial.Over the past two decades,a number of studies have been conducted by the researchers of Transport Research Centre(TRC)at the University of Technology Sydney(UTS)to investigate the ability of recycled rubber mats,as well as waste tyre cells and granulated rubber to improve the stability of track substructure including ballast and subballast layers.This paper reviews four applications of these novel methods,including using recycled rubber products such as CWRC mixtures(i.e.,mixtures of coal wash(CW)and rubber crumbs(RC))and SEAL mixtures(i.e.,mixtures of steel furnace slag,CW and RC)to replace subballast/capping materials,tyre cells reinforcements for subballast/capping layer and under ballast mats;and investigates the energy dissipation capacity for each application based on smallscale cyclic triaxial tests and large-scale track model tests.It has been found that the inclusion of these rubber products increases the energy dissipation effect of the track,hence reducing the ballast degradation efficiently and increasing the track stability.Moreover,a rheological model is also proposed to investigate the effect of different rubber inclusions on their efficiency to reduce the transient motion of rail track under dynamic loading.The outcomes elucidated in this paper will lead to a better understanding of the performance of ballast tracks upgraded with resilient rubber products,while promoting environmentally sustainable and more affordable ballasted tracks for greater passenger comfort and increased safety.

循环荷载水平与加载频率耦合作用下的软粘土特性研究

通过不排水循环三轴试验,并考虑不同循环应力水平及加载频率的影响,研究了软粘土在循环荷载作用下的孔隙水压力及变形特性,分别探讨了这些特性随循环加载时间和加载次数的不同变化规律。研究结果表明,对于相同循环应力水平,相同加载次数下不同加载频率的软粘土特性有所不同,而相同加载时间下不同加载频率的软粘土特性基本相同。此外,无论加载频率为何数值,一旦循环应力水平超过临界值,软粘土破坏必将发生。为了深入研究应力水平和加载频率的耦合作用,该文从应力控制循环加载试验中的应变速率着手,对软粘土的特性进行了分析。结果表明,在应力水平相同的情况下,软粘土在不同加载频率下的应变速率是基本相同的,由此可得对于软粘土在循环荷载作用下特性的影响,应力水平比加载频率更为重要。