Why does a little mean a lot when you have nothing? A brief review of cell therapy strategies for spinal cord injury

Without an understanding of functional musculoskeletal system recovery, the translation of knowledge concerning neurological recovery from laboratory discoveries to bedside applications will be incomplete. Because improvements in neurological function after cell transplantation are minor and can be easily ignored, this article draws attention to the minimal improvements required to allow a spinal cord injury patient or person to live a relatively independent life. These minimal improvements include(1) the key muscle power required for trunk stability;(2) the key muscle power required to allow a paraplegic to walk; and(3) the key muscle power required for hand usefulness or functionality. The system of muscle power grading promoted by the British Medical Research Council(MRC) is more sensitive and delicate than the ASIA Standards, as the latter only accept the full range of movement of a joint. The MRC system seems to be preferable to the ASIA Standards in clinical trials of cell transplantation, wherein minute improvements in function might result in large differences in the quality of life. The threshold of function is a grade 3 power level. Even if all relevant muscles fail to achieve a power higher than grade 3, the patient can be minimally functional and hence relatively independent. These relevant muscles include the latissimus dorsi, hip flexors, hip abductors, shoulder abductors and flexors, elbow flexors and extensors,and wrist extensors. These muscles are innervated by the C5–7 spinal cord segments except the latissimus dorsi, for which innervation extends to C8.

Are life sciences all about life?

Brain function is an extremely active dynamic process. Studing a living organism is essential for explaination of the sophistication of the brain. Although there are progresses in studying living tissues of acute or cultured slice for prolonged period in vitro, clinicians prefer seeing the lesion directly on an imaging screen or material.Functional MRI(fMRI) is commonly used method to study brain pathology in dynamics.

Global action against dementia call for innovations

With the fast-growing aging population, dementia has become a health priority.However, in the past, medicine was largely dealing with physical disorders, and not enough knowledge and experience have been accumulated for mental health. The main and first symptom of this disorder is the loss of memory; hence, understanding the hippocampal formation is the key to tackling dementia. In 2007, a milestone book titled "Hippocampus Book" was published. One of the authors/editors is the 2014 Nobel Laureate in Physiology and Medicine, Professor John O'Keefe. It is a MUST-READ encyclopedia about the hippocampal formation, for those who wish to commit themselves to helping the patients with dementia. The formation consists of the hippocampus,entorhinal cortex, subiculum, presubiculum, parasubiculum, and dentate gyrus. The hippocampus is further divided into CA1, CA2, and CA3. The entorhinal cortex is the gateway of receiving all sensory information from the neocortex, while the subiculum is the exit for the efferent projections to the neocortex. Memory is divided into short-term and long-term memory. The former does not require protein synthesis while the latter does. The electrophysiological activities of creating these memories are short-term potentiation and long-term potentiation respectively. In most cases, the entorhinal cortex is the first structure to be damaged, and even short-term memory cannot be created. However, all except spatial memory are stored in the neocortex. Damage to the hippocampal formation would not affect the storage and retrieval of memories. Hence, past memories may remain intact in the early phases of the disorder. This devastating progressive disease has no cure. However, the highly plastic hippocampal formation may offer us some hope. It is the responsibility of the pharmaceutical industries to develop new drugs. Clinicians should add their efforts to the endeavor. The author would suggest that they explore insulin-like growth factors,brain stimulation, cell transplantation, and animal-assisted therapy to find some innovative solutions to help patients with dementia. As the current status of neuroscience stands, the animal-assisted therapy seems to stand out among all methods. It alleviates symptoms and stabilizes the ailment.

Good-bye, our good friend: In memory of Geoffrey Raisman

Geoffrey Raisman was born to a Jewish family in Leeds,England in 1939.His grandparents immigrated from Lithuania over a hundred years ago.This is recorded in his book of family stories(Figure 1).He graduated in medicine at the University of Oxford,where he taught for 11 years.Later,he moved to the Medical Research Council,equivalent to the Medical Academy in China,where he focused on research.In1989,he was appointed Professor in Anatomy

Global action against dementia:Emerging of a new era

Since ancient times medical profession has typically dealt with physical disorders,because they are visible, palpable, and audible. The diagnosis is relatively direct. Mental health problems are hidden in the brain and we did not know what was going on inside the skull. We could only infer, by observing the patient's behaviors and making assumptions. Even now, we have to largely rely on this indirect approach.That is why psychology and psychiatry are classified as behavioral sciences. They are abstract, and we do not understand the structural changes causing the problem,except for obvious vascular or neoplastic lesions. Now, due to the introduction of new technologies, many mental health problems can be visualized through hi-tech equipment, albeit they are not yet palpable or audible. This direct approach has made the diagnosis much more secure. Now, we know that the problem of dementia starts from the hippocampal formation, and we can see it on magnetic resonance imaging(MRI) and functional MRI(f MRI). Therefore, a new era of mental health care is emerging. Dementia has become a burden for the patient, family members,caregivers, and the entire society. With ageing population, the number of patients with dementia will increase sharply not only in the developed but also in the developing world. The care of patients with dementia involves not only biology, but also sociology, including politics, and humanities. In 2012, in collaboration with the UK-based Alzheimer's Disease International, the World Health Organization(WHO)published "Dementia: a public health priority" report. A year later, in 2013, the problem was raised at the G8 summit meeting in London. In 2014, the UK-based Alzheimer's Society estimated that by 2015, there would be 850,000 sufferers of dementia. Finally, in 2015, the First WHO Ministerial Conference on Global Action Against Dementia took place in Geneva and a document calling for action was published. Every UN member state has a responsibility to take action in response to this solemn call to save the human race.

Evolution and restoration of structures and functions of the human central nervous system—A review

Clinical translational science:Clinical translational science(CTS)is a new discipline bridging laboratory discoveries and clinical applications.It is normally funded by research grants instead of investment major pharmaceutical companies.It is patient-and populationor community-oriented.Repair of the human