Non-timber forest products and household incomes in Bonga forest area,southwestern Ethiopia

We identified the major non-timber forest products （NTFPs）, their contributions to household incomes, and the determinants influenc-ing engagement of households in using NTFPs in the Bonga forest area of Gimbo and Decha Districts of Kaffa Zone, southwest Ethiopia. Six Kebeles （the lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia） were sampled from two Districts and 150 households were randomly sampled using propor-tional-to-size techniques based on the number of farm households in each Kebele. Secondary data were collected from and focus group discussions were conducted with selected individuals. The farmers diversified liveli-hood activities such as crop and livestock production, collection of NTFPs and off-farm activities. NTFPs played a significant role in household incomes. The contribution from the major NTFPs （forest coffee, honey and spices） accounted for 47% of annual household in-come. The role of NTFPs was influenced by a number of factors. Vari-ables including being native to the area （＋）, total land holding （＋）, pos-session of livestock （＋） and access to extension （＋） significantly affected forest coffee production. Age of household head （-）, land holding （＋） and distance of the market from the residence （-） significantly affected honey production. Size of landholding （＋）, distance to market （-） and distance of the forest from the residence （-） were significant variables determining the NTFP incomes derived by the households. Attention is needed in the design of policies and strategies for the well-being of households to the contribution of NTFPs to local incomes and the variables that affect the collection of NTFPs must be considered.

Longevity of Juniperus procera seed lots under different storage conditions: implications for ex situ conservation in seed banks

Juniperus procera Endl. is economically important timber species, but its populations are extremely small and fragmented in its natural habitat, thus, calling for immediate ex situ conservation. Here we examined the effects of seed sources and storage temperature on the longevity of Juniperus procera seed lots through collection and preservation of seeds in seed banks. Seeds were collected from nine sites across the species natural distribution in Ethiopia and stored in four warehouses： modern cold room （5℃）, mud house （15℃）, concrete block house （17℃ or corrugated iron house （20℃） for 42 months. Every three months, a random sample of stored seeds were drawn and tested for germination. A highly significant variation （p 0.01） in germination of stored seeds was observed among different storage environments, seed lots, and duration of storage. Over the storage period, seeds stored in the cold room had the highest mean percentage germination, followed by the mud house, corrugated house and blocket house. The cold room （41%） and the mud house （38%） maintained the same level of germination as the intitial germination of the seedlotds （42%）. The variation in longevity of stored seeds was significnatly correlated with the initial germination of seed lots （r 0.80; p 0.01）. Cold storage also resulted in enhancement of germination through its stratification effect that terminated the non-deepphysiological dormancy of juniper seeds. In conclusion, seed lots with good initial germination can be effectively stored in cold room （5℃） up to four years. In the absence of modern cold stores, mud houses can be used as a good alternative to store seeds at local level.

Diversity and regeneration status of woody species in Tara Gedam and Abebaye forests,northwestern Ethiopia

A study was conducted in Tara Gedam and Abebaye forests l,northwestern Ethiopia to investigate the diversity,regeneration status,socio-economic importance and the factors causing destruction of the forests.A total of 30 plots,measuring 20 m ×20 m,were established along line transects laid across the forests.Participatory Rural Appraisal （PRA） method was employed to generate the socio-economic data.Primary data were collected by field observation,semi-structured interview with key informants and discussion with relevant stakeholders.A total of 143 woody species belonging to 114 genera and 57 families were recorded,and of all the species 44 （30.8%） were trees,57 （39.9%） trees/shrubs,33 （23.1%） shrubs and 9 （6.3%） lianas.The diversity and evenness of woody species in Tara Gedam forest are 2.98 and 0.65,respectively,and in Abebaye forest they are 1.31 and 0.31,respectively.The total density and basal area of woody species in Tara Gedam forest are 3001 individuals ha-1 and 115.36 m 2 ha-1,respectively,and in Abebaye forest the values are 2850 individuals ha-1 and 49.45 m 2 ha-1,respectively.The results on the importance value index （IVI） and DBH class distributions suggest that the species with low IVI value and poor regeneration status need to be prioritized for conservation.In the socio-economic survey,the responses from the key informants indicatedthat the forests are the major sources of fuelwood （90%）,construction material （80%）,timber （75%） and farm implements （55%）.The forests are also sources of medicines,animal fodder,bee forage and edible fruits.Tara Gedam monastery,assisted by the local people who have strong religious belief and high respect to the monastery,has played a great role in the maintenance of the sacred forest since a long time.At present,the conservation efforts are made jointly by the monastery and institutions concerned with conservation.The major factors that cause destruction of the forests are livestock grazing,tree cutting for various purposes and farmland expansion.The implications of the results are discussed,and the recommendations are suggested for conservation,management and sustainable utilization of the forest ecosystems.

Diversity, Population Structure and Regeneration Status of Woody Species in Dry Woodlands Adjacent to <i>Molapo</i>Farms in Northern Botswana

The diversity, population structure and regeneration status of woody species were studied at Xobe and Shorobe Villages in northern Botswana. A total of 130 and 111 quadrats of 20 × 20 m size were laid down at 50 m intervals along parallel line transects at Xobe and Shorobe, respectively. A total of 46 woody species, 27 from Xobe and 41 from Shorobe were recorded. Of the 46 woody species, only 22 were recorded at both sites. Ten genera and six families were found only in Shorobe while one genus and one family were found only in Xobe. The diversity and evenness of woody species were 1.5 and 0.5 in Xobe, respectively, and 2.18 and 0.6 in Shorobe, respectively. The similarities of woody species in terms of richness of species, genera and families at the two sites were about 50%, 54% and 56%, respectively. The mean densities of woody species were 2745.7 ± 1.35 and 4269.7 ± 36 individuals ha-1 at Xobe and Shorobe, respectively. Despite differences in absolute numbers, the total mean densities of woody species at both sites did not exhibit significant (P = 0.35) differences. At both sites, woody species were dominated by individuals of only a few species, which also exhibited the highest values of important value index. The population structure patterns of the woody species were categorized into five groups. The species in the first group exhibited reverse J-shaped distribution, which indicates stable population structures. The species in the second group showed relatively good recruitment but the regeneration is negatively affected. The species in the other three groups exhibited hampered regeneration as a result of disturbances caused by humans, domestic animals and annual fires. The parameters assessed indicate the need for attention and appropriate management interventions by the relevant national authorities at various levels.

Stand Structure, Diversity and Regeneration Status of Woody Species in Open and Exclosed Dry Woodland Sites around <i>Molapo</i>Farming Areas of the Okavango Delta, Northeastern Botswana

Stand structure, diversity and regeneration status of woody species were investigated in open and exclosed dry woodland sites in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe, northeastern Botswana. A total of 105, 111 and 130 quadrats, measuring 20 × 20 m each, were laid down along parallel line transects in the three sites, respectively, to collect data. A total of 47 species, representing 16 families and 24 genera, were recorded in the study sites. Of these, 33 species representing 13 families and 20 genera, 41 species representing 15 families and 23 genera and 27 species representing 10 families and 14 genera were encountered in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe, respectively. The most diverse family was Fabaceae followed by Combretaceae and Tiliaceae at all the three sites. The most diverse genus was Acacia, followed by Combretum and Grewia. The diversity of woody species in the study sites were 2.18, 2.15 and 1.5 in Shorobe, Island Safari and Xobe, respectively, while their corresponding evenness values were 0.6, 0.6 and 0.5, respectively. The mean densities of the woody species encountered in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe were 2629, 4271 and 2745 individuals ha&#451, respectively. The five densest species were Colophospermum mopane, Dichrostachys cinerea, Acacia tortilis, Philenoptera violacea and Terminalia prunioides in Island Safari, C. mopane, A. tortilis, A. erioloba, P. violacea and D. cinerea in Shorobe and Acacia mellifera, A. tortilis, P. nelsii, A. luederitzii and A. erubescens in Xobe. The highest important value index values were exhibited by C. mopane, D. cinerea, A. tortilis, P. violacea and T. prunioides in Island Safari, C. mopane, A. erioloba, A. tortilis, P. violacea and C. imberbe in Shorobe, and A. mellifera, A. tortilis, P. nelsii and A. luederitzii in Xobe. The alarming result was the fact that 71%, 80% and 85% of the woody species recorded in Island Safari, Shorobe and Xobe, respectively, exhibited hampered regeneration and, thus, unhealthy population structures. Therefore, there is an urgent need to address the observed unhealthy population structures of the woody species through investigation of the major causes of their hampered regeneration, and also designing measures that will facilitate natural and artificial regeneration of these species at the three study sites.

Growth and yield of two grain crops on sites former covered with eucalypt plantations in Koga Watershed, northwestern Ethiopia

Farmers in the highlands of Ethiopia often plant Eucalyptus on their farmlands. However, growing Eucalyptus, especially on farm- lands suitable for crop production has become a great concern due to its alleged long-term site effects. Our study was conducted at Koga water- shed, Mecha District, northwestern Ethiopia to investigate whether crop- lands afforested with Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. can be restored for annual crop production after tree harvest. We compared growth and yield of two agricultural crops, barley （Hordeum vulgate L.） and finger millet （Eleusine coracana （L.） Gaertn.）, grown in clear-felled stands of E. camaldulensis and continuously cultivated croplands at twelve paired farmlands under a conventional farming system. Plant height and dry matter production were evaluated as indices of crop growth, while grain weight was evaluated as an index of crop yield. Crop growth and yield measurements averaged over all farmlands differed between land-use types. For both crops, plants grown on clear-felled stands were taller than on croplands. Dry matter production and yield were also significantly greater in crops cultivated on clear-felled stands. Cropland aboveground and belowground dry matter productions were lower by 31.8 and 25.4% for barley and 32.8% and 37% for finger millet, respectively. Clear-felled stands gave an average yield of 2.91 t.ha-1 for barley and 3.27 t.ha-1 for finger millet while cropland gave a yield of 1.97 and 2.31 t.ha-1 for barley and finger millet, respectively. Farmers also responded that farm plots on former eucalypt plantations showed greater crop growth and yield thandid continuously cultivated croplands. Farmers perceived that Eucalyptus plantations improved soil fertility and they preferred clear-felled stands for crop production and wished to plant Eucalyptus on their farmlands. Our results suggest that conversion of agricultural lands to Eucalyptus plantations can increase post-felling yields of cereal crops.

Socio-Economic Factors Affecting Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of the Vegetation Resources on the Islands of Lake Ziway, South-Central Ethiopia

The study was conducted on the islands of Lake Ziway, south-central Ethiopia. The aim of the study was to investigate the socio-economic factors affecting the vegetation resources and the indigenous resource management systems and practices on the islands. Data were collected by field observations, interviews and group discussion. The island communities were engaged in diverse economic activities. The fishing industry was the main pillar of the economy as most of the income (75.7%) was derived from this sector. The existence of diverse economic activities had relieved the pressure on the vegetation resources. The natural vegetation was the major source of fuelwood, construction material, farm implements, edible fruits, medicines, fodder and bee forage. The islanders have maintained the soil and vegetation resources for centuries through their environmental friendly resource management systems and practices. At present, however, the vegetation resources are dwindling due to free livestock grazing, farmland expansion, soil erosion and tree cutting for various purposes, all of which are driven by human population growth. Since the islanders have high respect and trust for the church, integrating environment and development issues with this institution would be more effective. The prevailing natural and anthropogenic factors affecting the vegetation resources on the islands necessitate effective conservation and management interventions.

Seed production,seed dispersal and seedling establishment of two afromontane tree species in and around a church forest：implications for forest restoration

Background：Seed production,seed dispersal and seedling establishment are relevant life phases of plants.Understanding these processes and their patterns is essential to recognize vegetation dynamics and to apply it to forest restoration.Methods：For Olea europaea and Schefflera abyssinica,fecundity was estimated using randomized branch sampling.Seed dispersal and seedling establishment were monitored using spatially explicit seed traps and plots.Dispersal functions were calibrated applying inverse modeling.Results：O.europaea produced more seeds and had longer dispersal distances compared to S.abyssinica.Correlations between observed and predicted number of recruits were statistically significant.Seedlings of the two species showed different niche requirements.Conclusions：The studied species were recruitment-limited due to low dispersal activity or lack of suitable microsites.Restoration relying on natural regeneration should overcome these limitations by increasing disperser visitation and reducing biotic and abiotic stresses.

Responses of Dobera glabra and Eight Co-Occurring Species to Drought and Salinity Stress at a Savanna-Scrub Ecotone:Implications in the Face of Climate Change

To quantify the resistance of different co-occurring species to drought and osmotic stress (salinity stress), plant water (Ψ) and osmotic (Ψp) potentials were measured during the dry season. We applied a pressure chamber and cryoscopy to measure Ψ and Ψp, respectively. The species revealed a wide range of responses to water stress (-0.83 to -5.8 MPa) and osmotic stress (-1.3 to -3.2 MPa) and not all plants fit closely into one or the other category. Evergreen species tended to have lower Ψ than deciduous species. Notably, Dobera glabra, well known as drought indicator tree in the region, showed the lowest Ψ (up to -5.8 MPa) and Ψp (-3.2 MPa). This indicates its outstanding drought and osmotic stress tolerance and explains its ability to thrive in drought prone areas and years. The recent expansion of A. oerfota and A. mellifera in the study area could be related to their tolerance of osmotic stress, which may imply a trend of soil salinization. The division of plant responses into categories or strategies can be valuable aid to understanding long-term plant survival and distribution, monitor site condition and predict the direction of future changes.

Enhancement of diversity,stand structure and regeneration of woody species through area exclosure:the case of a mopane woodland in northern Botswana

Introduction:An area exclosure is the practice of land management that involves the exclusion of livestock and humans from openly accessing an area that is characterized by severe degradation.Area exclosures have been employed as cheap and convenient means of rehabilitating degraded forests/woodlands.A study was carried out to(i)assess the species richness,diversity and evenness;(ii)determine the densities,frequencies,dominance and importance value index;and(iii)assess the population structure and regeneration status of woody species inside and outside the fence(area exclosure)of Okavango Research Institute(ORI)located in Maun,northern Botswana.Results:Thirty-five woody species were recorded inside(32 spp.)and outside(24 spp.)the ORI compound,and the population structure and regeneration status of the woody species were better inside than outside the ORI compound.The exclosure had seven times higher mean density of woody species than outside ORI,and an exceptional regeneration of seedlings was observed inside than outside the ORI compound,suggesting the process of recovery of the degraded woodland.The frequencies of more than half of the woody species also showed increment inside than outside the exclosure.The results suggest that the exclosed area is still in an initial recovery stage since it had been an open grazing area prior to the establishment of the exclosure.Most of the woody species encountered outside ORI showed hampered recruitment and regeneration,owing to different anthropogenic impacts and overgrazing by animals.Conclusions:Despite the relatively short period(10 years)of exclosure establishment,results from the present study have further provided empirical evidences on the actual crucial roles played by area exclosures to increase woody species richness,diversity,evenness,density,frequency,dominance and important value index as well as enhance the population structure and regeneration of the woody species in northern Botswana.Future research is recommended focusing on comparative studies on herbaceous species richness,diversity and density,horizontal and vertical distribution of soil seed banks,species richness of soil microorganisms,plant and soil biomass,plant and soil carbon pools(above and below ground)as well as soil contents and properties inside and outside the ORI compound.

Perceptions and attitudes of local people towards participatory forest management in Tarmaber District of North Shewa Administrative Zone, Ethiopia: the case of Wof-Washa Forests

Introduction:Since the last few decades,the government of Ethiopia has introduced and adopted participatory forest management(PFM)in different regions of the country.However,there is a lack of research dealing with perceptions and attitudes of local people towards PFM in Wof-Washa Forests(WWF).The aim of this study was to evaluate the perceptions and attitudes of local people towards PFM implemented in WWF.We hypothesized that the perceptions and attitudes of local people towards PFM differ with socio-economic variables,such as sex,age,level of education,family size,occupation type,annual income,length of duration of local residence,livestock,and land ownership.Methods:A structured questionnaire comprised of close-and open-ended questions was developed and administered to a total of n=64 households to collect information on the perceptions and attitudes of local people towards PFM in WWF.Descriptive statistics and multiple linear regressions were used to analyze and interpret the data.Results:The results revealed that socio-economic variables had significant effects on the perceptions towards“the prevalence of the problems with the existing PFM system”(39%variance explained),“the concept of PFM”(30%variance explained),and“the presence of PFM practice”(11%variance explained).Majority of the respondents accepted the PFM program introduced in WWF in order to protect and manage the WWF.The study also revealed that socio-economic variables had significant effects on the attitudes towards“managing forests via participatory approach”(16%variance explained),“having the responsibility to protect the WWF”(40%variance explained),and“accepting the PFM practice”(54%variance explained).However,the findings suggested that there were some respondents who were yet unsure to fully accept the concept and practice of PFM.Conclusions:Creating public awareness about PFM is crucial to alleviate the problems of deforestation and reduce the unsustainable use of the WWF.As socio-economic variables that affect perceptions and attitudes of local people towards PFM may change over time,future research is crucial to consider the time dimension as possible factor while studying perceptions and attitudes of local people towards PFM.

Species composition, stand structure, and regeneration status of tree species in dry Afromontane forests of Awi Zone, northwestern Ethiopia

Species composition,structure,and regeneration status of trees were assessed in five dry Afromontane forests.In each of the forests,trees having≥5 cm diameter at breast height were identified and measured in 80 quadrats(20×20m^(2)).We compared tree species composition and similarities,stem densities,frequencies,basal area and importance value index of trees.Harvesting index was calculated to 13.3%in the least disturbed and 22.5%in highly disturbed forests.A total of 1,655 individuals representing 38 species and 28 families were recorded.The tree densities varied from 364.1 to 664.1stem ha^(−1) with an average basal area of 20.7m^(2) ha^(−1).The analysis showed significant differences in basal areas of tree species between the least and highly disturbed forests.Seedling densities ranged from 2000 to 8162.5 stem ha^(−1) and sapling densities ranged from 512.5 to 2562.5 stem ha^(−1).The anthropogenic disturbances revealed high degradation of population structure and regeneration statutes of the trees in the studied forest ecosystem.In conclusion,the study provided empirical results on the dominance,population structure,importance value and regeneration status of tree species,which would be instrumental for the development of successful rehabilitation strategies for the studied forests.