The biathlon, an Olympic sporting discipline that combines cross-country skiing with rifle marksmanship, entails considerable physiological demands, as well as fine motor control while shooting after intense exercise ...The biathlon, an Olympic sporting discipline that combines cross-country skiing with rifle marksmanship, entails considerable physiological demands, as well as fine motor control while shooting after intense exercise and under mental pressure. Although much of our knowledge about cross-country skiing is probably also applicable to the biathlon, carrying the rifle and shooting under stress make this discipline somewhat unique. The present review summarizes and examines the scientific literature related to biathlon performance, with a focus on physiological and biomechanical factors and shooting technique, as well as psychophysiological aspects of shooting performance. We conclude with suggestions for future research designed to extend our knowledge about the biathlon, which is presently quite limited.展开更多
Background: Cross-country skiing(XCS) racing, a popular international winter sport, is complex and challenging from physical, technical, and tactical perspectives. Despite the vast amount of research focusing on this ...Background: Cross-country skiing(XCS) racing, a popular international winter sport, is complex and challenging from physical, technical, and tactical perspectives. Despite the vast amount of research focusing on this sport, no review has yet addressed the pacing strategies of elite XCS racers or the factors that influence their performance. The aim was to review the scientific literature in an attempt to determine the effects of pacing strategy on the performance of elite XCS racers.Methods: Four electronic databases were searched using relevant subject headings and keywords. Only original research articles published in peerreviewed journals and the English language and addressing performance, biomechanics, physiology, and anthropometry of XCS racers were reviewed.Results: All 27 included articles applied correlative designs to study the effectiveness of different pacing strategies. None of the articles involved the use of an experimental design. Furthermore, potential changes in external conditions(e.g., weather, ski properties) were not taken into consideration. A comparable number of studies focused on the skating or classical technique. In most cases, positive pacing was observed, with certain indications that higher-level athletes and those with more endurance and strength utilized a more even pacing strategy. The ability to achieve and maintain a long cycle length on all types of terrain was an important determinant of performance in all of the included studies, which was not the case for cycle rate. In general, uphill performance was closely related to overall race performance, with uphill performance being most closely correlated to the success of female skiers and performance on flat terrain being more important for male skiers. Moreover, pacing was coupled to the selection and distribution of technique during a race, with faster skiers employing more double poling and kick double poling,less diagonal stride, and more V2(double dance) than V1(single dance) skating across a race.Conclusion: We propose that skiers at all levels can improve their performance with more specific training in techniques(i.e., maintaining long cycles without compromising cycle rate and selecting appropriate techniques) in combination with training for endurance and more strength. Furthermore, we would advise less experienced skiers and/or those with lower levels of performance to apply a more even pacing strategy rather than a positive one(i.e., starting the race too fast).展开更多
Purpose:This study aimed to compare biomechanical aspects of a novel"running"diagonal stride(DSRUN)with"conventional"diagonal stride(DSCONV)skiing techniques performed at high speed.Methods:Ten eli...Purpose:This study aimed to compare biomechanical aspects of a novel"running"diagonal stride(DSRUN)with"conventional"diagonal stride(DSCONV)skiing techniques performed at high speed.Methods:Ten elite Italian male junior cross-country skiers skied on a treadmill at 10 km/h and at a 10°incline utilizing both variants of the diagonal stride technique.The 3-dimensional kinematics of the body,poles,and roller skis;the force exerted through the poles and foot plantar surfaces;and the angular motion of the leg joints were determined.Results:Compared to DSCONV,DSRUN demonstrated shorter cycle times(1.05±0.05 s vs.0.75±0.03 s(mean±SD),p<0.001)due to a shorter rolling phase(0.40±0.04 s vs.0.09±0.04 s,p<0.001);greater force applied perpendicularly to the roller skis when they had stopped rolling forward(413±190 N vs.890±170 N,p<0.001),with peak force being attained earlier;prolonged knee extension,with a greater range of motion during the roller ski-stop phase(28°±40 vs.16°±3°,p=0.00014);and more pronounced hip and knee flexion during most of the forward leg swing.The mechanical work performed against friction during rolling was significantly less with DSRUN than with DSCONV(0.04±0.01 J/m/kg vs.0.10±0.02 J/m/kg,p<0.001).Conclusion:Our findings demonstrate that DSRUN is characterize by more rapid propulsion,earlier leg extension,and a greater range of motion of knee joint extension than DSCONV-Further investigations,preferably on snow,should reveal whether DSRUN results in higher acceleration and/or higher peak speed.展开更多
Cross-country(XC)ski races involve a variety of formats,two different techniques and tracks with highly variable topography and environmental conditions.In addition,XC skiing is a major component of both Nordic combin...Cross-country(XC)ski races involve a variety of formats,two different techniques and tracks with highly variable topography and environmental conditions.In addition,XC skiing is a major component of both Nordic combined and biathlon competi-tions.Research in this area,both in the laboratory and field,encounters certain difficulties that may reduce the reliability and validity of the data obtained,as well as complicate comparisons between studies.Here,13 international experts propose specific guidelines designed to enhance the quality of research and publications on XC skiing,as well as on the biathlon and Nordic combined skiing.We consider biomechanical(kinematic,kinetic and neuromuscular)and physiological methodology(at the systemic and/or muscle level),providing recommendations for standardization/control of the experimental setup.We describe the types of measuring equipment and technology that are most suitable in this context.Moreover,we also deal with certain aspects of nomenclature of the classical and skating sub-techniques.In addition to enhancing the quality of stud-ies on XC skiing,Nordic combined and biathlon,our guidelines should also be of value for sport scientists and coaches in other disciplines where physiological and/or biomechanical measurements are performed in the laboratory and/or outdoors.展开更多
At the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing,the XC skiing,biathlon and nordic combined events will be held at altitudes of~1700 m above sea level,possibly in cold environmental conditions and while requiring adjustment to ...At the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing,the XC skiing,biathlon and nordic combined events will be held at altitudes of~1700 m above sea level,possibly in cold environmental conditions and while requiring adjustment to several time zones.However,the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic may lead to sub-optimal preparations.The current commentary provides the following evidence-based recommendations for the Olympic preparations:make sure to have extensive experience of training(>60 days annually)and competition at or above the altitude of competition(~1700 m),to optimize and individualize your strategies for acclimatization and competition.In preparing for the Olympics,10-14 days at~1700 m seems to optimize performance at this altitude effectively.An alternative strategy involves two-three weeks of training at>2000 m,followed by 7-10 days of tapering off at~1700 m.During each of the last 3 or 4 days prior to departure,shift your sleeping and eating schedule by 0.5-1 h towards the time zone in Beijing.In addition,we recommend that you arrive in Beijing one day earlier for each hour change in time zone,followed by appropriate timing of exposure to daylight,meals,social contacts,and naps,in combination with a gradual increase in training load.Optimize your own individual procedures for warming-up,as well as for maintaining body temperature during the period between the warm-up and competition,effective treatment of asthma(if necessary)and pacing at~1700 m with cold ambient temperatures.Although we hope that these recommendations will be helpful in preparing for the Beijing Olympics in 2022,there is a clear need for more solid evidence gained through new sophisticated experiments and observational studies.展开更多
文摘The biathlon, an Olympic sporting discipline that combines cross-country skiing with rifle marksmanship, entails considerable physiological demands, as well as fine motor control while shooting after intense exercise and under mental pressure. Although much of our knowledge about cross-country skiing is probably also applicable to the biathlon, carrying the rifle and shooting under stress make this discipline somewhat unique. The present review summarizes and examines the scientific literature related to biathlon performance, with a focus on physiological and biomechanical factors and shooting technique, as well as psychophysiological aspects of shooting performance. We conclude with suggestions for future research designed to extend our knowledge about the biathlon, which is presently quite limited.
文摘Background: Cross-country skiing(XCS) racing, a popular international winter sport, is complex and challenging from physical, technical, and tactical perspectives. Despite the vast amount of research focusing on this sport, no review has yet addressed the pacing strategies of elite XCS racers or the factors that influence their performance. The aim was to review the scientific literature in an attempt to determine the effects of pacing strategy on the performance of elite XCS racers.Methods: Four electronic databases were searched using relevant subject headings and keywords. Only original research articles published in peerreviewed journals and the English language and addressing performance, biomechanics, physiology, and anthropometry of XCS racers were reviewed.Results: All 27 included articles applied correlative designs to study the effectiveness of different pacing strategies. None of the articles involved the use of an experimental design. Furthermore, potential changes in external conditions(e.g., weather, ski properties) were not taken into consideration. A comparable number of studies focused on the skating or classical technique. In most cases, positive pacing was observed, with certain indications that higher-level athletes and those with more endurance and strength utilized a more even pacing strategy. The ability to achieve and maintain a long cycle length on all types of terrain was an important determinant of performance in all of the included studies, which was not the case for cycle rate. In general, uphill performance was closely related to overall race performance, with uphill performance being most closely correlated to the success of female skiers and performance on flat terrain being more important for male skiers. Moreover, pacing was coupled to the selection and distribution of technique during a race, with faster skiers employing more double poling and kick double poling,less diagonal stride, and more V2(double dance) than V1(single dance) skating across a race.Conclusion: We propose that skiers at all levels can improve their performance with more specific training in techniques(i.e., maintaining long cycles without compromising cycle rate and selecting appropriate techniques) in combination with training for endurance and more strength. Furthermore, we would advise less experienced skiers and/or those with lower levels of performance to apply a more even pacing strategy rather than a positive one(i.e., starting the race too fast).
文摘Purpose:This study aimed to compare biomechanical aspects of a novel"running"diagonal stride(DSRUN)with"conventional"diagonal stride(DSCONV)skiing techniques performed at high speed.Methods:Ten elite Italian male junior cross-country skiers skied on a treadmill at 10 km/h and at a 10°incline utilizing both variants of the diagonal stride technique.The 3-dimensional kinematics of the body,poles,and roller skis;the force exerted through the poles and foot plantar surfaces;and the angular motion of the leg joints were determined.Results:Compared to DSCONV,DSRUN demonstrated shorter cycle times(1.05±0.05 s vs.0.75±0.03 s(mean±SD),p<0.001)due to a shorter rolling phase(0.40±0.04 s vs.0.09±0.04 s,p<0.001);greater force applied perpendicularly to the roller skis when they had stopped rolling forward(413±190 N vs.890±170 N,p<0.001),with peak force being attained earlier;prolonged knee extension,with a greater range of motion during the roller ski-stop phase(28°±40 vs.16°±3°,p=0.00014);and more pronounced hip and knee flexion during most of the forward leg swing.The mechanical work performed against friction during rolling was significantly less with DSRUN than with DSCONV(0.04±0.01 J/m/kg vs.0.10±0.02 J/m/kg,p<0.001).Conclusion:Our findings demonstrate that DSRUN is characterize by more rapid propulsion,earlier leg extension,and a greater range of motion of knee joint extension than DSCONV-Further investigations,preferably on snow,should reveal whether DSRUN results in higher acceleration and/or higher peak speed.
文摘Cross-country(XC)ski races involve a variety of formats,two different techniques and tracks with highly variable topography and environmental conditions.In addition,XC skiing is a major component of both Nordic combined and biathlon competi-tions.Research in this area,both in the laboratory and field,encounters certain difficulties that may reduce the reliability and validity of the data obtained,as well as complicate comparisons between studies.Here,13 international experts propose specific guidelines designed to enhance the quality of research and publications on XC skiing,as well as on the biathlon and Nordic combined skiing.We consider biomechanical(kinematic,kinetic and neuromuscular)and physiological methodology(at the systemic and/or muscle level),providing recommendations for standardization/control of the experimental setup.We describe the types of measuring equipment and technology that are most suitable in this context.Moreover,we also deal with certain aspects of nomenclature of the classical and skating sub-techniques.In addition to enhancing the quality of stud-ies on XC skiing,Nordic combined and biathlon,our guidelines should also be of value for sport scientists and coaches in other disciplines where physiological and/or biomechanical measurements are performed in the laboratory and/or outdoors.
文摘At the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing,the XC skiing,biathlon and nordic combined events will be held at altitudes of~1700 m above sea level,possibly in cold environmental conditions and while requiring adjustment to several time zones.However,the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic may lead to sub-optimal preparations.The current commentary provides the following evidence-based recommendations for the Olympic preparations:make sure to have extensive experience of training(>60 days annually)and competition at or above the altitude of competition(~1700 m),to optimize and individualize your strategies for acclimatization and competition.In preparing for the Olympics,10-14 days at~1700 m seems to optimize performance at this altitude effectively.An alternative strategy involves two-three weeks of training at>2000 m,followed by 7-10 days of tapering off at~1700 m.During each of the last 3 or 4 days prior to departure,shift your sleeping and eating schedule by 0.5-1 h towards the time zone in Beijing.In addition,we recommend that you arrive in Beijing one day earlier for each hour change in time zone,followed by appropriate timing of exposure to daylight,meals,social contacts,and naps,in combination with a gradual increase in training load.Optimize your own individual procedures for warming-up,as well as for maintaining body temperature during the period between the warm-up and competition,effective treatment of asthma(if necessary)and pacing at~1700 m with cold ambient temperatures.Although we hope that these recommendations will be helpful in preparing for the Beijing Olympics in 2022,there is a clear need for more solid evidence gained through new sophisticated experiments and observational studies.
