Multiple haploids, triploids, and tetraploids found in modern-day “living fossil” Ginkgo biloba

Ginkgo biloba,the last extant representative of a lineage of Mesozoic gymnosperms,is one of the few seed plants with an exceptionally long(~300 Myr)evolutionary history free of genome-wide duplications(polyploidy).Despite this genome conservatism,we have recently found a viable spontaneous tetraploid Ginkgo sapling during routine screening of several plants,demonstrating that natural polyploidy is possible in Ginkgo.Here we provide a much wider flow cytometry survey of ploidy in some European Ginkgo collections,and own seedlings(>2200 individuals and~200 cultivars).We found a surprisingly high level of ploidy variation in modern-day Ginkgo and documented altogether 13 haploid,3 triploid,and 10 tetraploid Ginkgo plants or cultivars,most of them being morphologically distinct from common diploids.Haploids frequently produced polyploid(dihaploid)buds or branches.Tetraploids showed some genome size variation.The surveyed plants provide a unique resource for future Ginkgo research and breeding,and they might be used to accelerate the modern diversification of this nearly extinct plant lineage.

Common and conflicting objectives and practices of herders and conservation managers:the need for a conservation herder

The mutual dependence of extensive land-use and conservation management has become appar-ent in Europe in the last 20-30 yr.Extensive land-use often survives in protected areas only,in the form of conservation management.Knowledge of extensive herding and that of conservation management are parts of two knowledge systems(traditional and scientific)which often leads to conflicts between locals and con-servationists.We studied two herding/conservation systems(salt steppes and wood-pastures),and devel-oped an inventory on the common/similar and conflicting/different objectives and pasture management practices of herders and conservationists.Data were collected by participatory knowledge co-production in teamwork of the co-authors(herders,conservation managers,and scientists).Data were analyzed and discussed in teamwork too.Herders and conservationists identified 23 objectives and 29 management prac-tices.We found a number of common interests with respect to herding,the ideal state of pastures,legal provisions,and communication.Conflict resolution recommendations(e.g.,on time and place of grazing,pasture improvements)were also developed.We argue that by co-production of knowledge,and establish-ment of a herder“school”the mitigation of the existing conflicts would be more effective.Our conclusion is that a new profession is needed:that of the conservation herder.The conservation herder shall be an indi-vidual knowledgeable about herding and pasture management,trained in conservation and ecology,able to design management experiments,and develop novel but tradition-based management practices.As such,he/she could facilitate adaptation of extensive herding in the changing socio-economic environment.