Stigma and its impact on the families of former soldiers of the German Armed Forces: An exploratory study

Background: Military families who have a family member with a mental illness see themselves confronted with many demands. Stigmatization is one of these challenges. Stigmatization affects not only the individual who suffers from a mental illness but also other family members via stigma by association and vicarious stigma. Stigma by association occurs when mental illness stigma spills over to individuals associated with an individual with a mental illness. Vicarious stigma describes the suffering of family members when they note the impact of stigma on their relative with mental illness. As a societal phenomenon, stigma plays out in social interactions and might therefore influence the social networks of families. It is also associated with healthcare utilization.Methods: Narrative interviews were conducted with 15 family members(partners, spouses, parents and children) of former soldiers of the German Armed Forces with a service-induced mental illness. The transcribed interview data were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach, in which codes were formed and emerging themes were systemized. Relationships between stigma, the families’ reactions to it, its effects on their social relationships and its interference with their healthcare utilization were analyzed.Results: This study provides a detailed description of how relatives of former German soldiers with mental health problems experience stigma by association and vicarious stigma. Their perceptions are shown in a model that describes stigma-related attitudes, reactions to them and their effects on the social relationships of former soldiers’ families. These families felt stigmatized because of the former soldiers’ mental illness(mental illness stigma) and the military context in which it occurred(former soldier stigma). They reacted with nondisclosure, anger, acceptance and self-blame. Stigma was associated with smaller and weaker social networks that were characterized by social exclusion, self-segregation and conflicts with extended family, friends and colleagues. Stigma also affected the families’ healthcare utilization.Conclusions: Urgently needed anti-stigma campaigns, particularly in the civilian context, should address the stigmatization of both mental illness and the military participation of the families affected. They should consider the needs of both former soldiers with a mental illness and their families.

Serum Concentrations of Tumor Necrosis Factor-α and its Soluble Receptors in Soldiers with and Without Combat-related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder： Influence of Age and Body Mass Index

To the Editor： With great interest we read the original article of Chert et al published in the Chinese Medical Journal comparing serum concentrations of cytokines in patients of Han and Li ethnicity with posttraumatic stress disorder （PTSD）. The authors found significantly higher serum concentrations of the cytokines interleukin （IL）-2, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor （TNF）-α in PTSD patients compared to normal controls, and differences in cytokine concentrations according to ethnicity.