Virulent endocarditis due to Haemophilus parainfluenzae:A systematic review of the literature

BACKGROUND Haemophilus parainfluenzae(HPI)belongs to the HACEK(Haemophilus spp.,Aggregatibacter spp.,Cardiobacterium spp.,Eikenella spp.,and Kingella spp.)group of organisms.The HACEK group of organisms are a part of the oropharyngeal flora and can cause invasive opportunistic infection such infective endocarditis(IE)in hosts with compromised immunological barriers.AIM To perform a 20-year systematic review of the literature characterizing the clinical presentation,epidemiology and prognosis of HPI IE.METHODS We performed a systematic review of Medline,Pubmed,Scopus and Embase from 2000 to 2022 to identify all cases of HPI IE.RESULTS Thirty-nine adult cases were identified.HPI IE was found to affect males slightly more than females and is common in patients with predisposing risk factors such as underlying valvular abnormalities.It mostly affected the mitral valve and had an indolent course;significantly sized vegetations(>1 cm)developed in most cases.Central nervous system septic embolization was common.It had a favorable prognosis compared to staphylococcal and streptococcal IE.CONCLUSION Clinicians should be attentive to the indolent course of HPI IE and the presence of predisposing risk factors in order to allow for timely management.