European cooperation to tackle the legacies of hexachlorocyclohexane(HCH)and lindane

Hexachlorocyclohexane(HCH)waste isomers from lindane production are the largest single POPs legacy,with an estimated 4.8 to 7.4 million tonnes of disposed waste.The largest part of this waste e 1.8 to 3 million tonnes e was disposed in Europe,where most producers were located.This paper provides a short overview of projects supported by the European Union(EU)to address this waste legacy and to implement the Stockholm Convention for this group of POPs with associated protection of soil,ecosystems and human health.We report here particularly on the results of a project financed by the EU called the“HCH in EU project”,which aimed to develop a systematic inventory of sites where HCH was handled and potentially resulted in contamination.The compiled information provide guidance for competent authorities to further assess their national HCH inventory and to further develop a strategy to address this large POP legacy in future.The systematic inventory revealed that there were at least 299 sites where HCH was handled.These sites include 54 former production sites,76 pesticide processing plants that used lindane,59 uncontrolled HCH waste isomer deposits,29 landfills with HCH waste,34 former or current storage sites for stocks of obsolete pesticides including technical HCH or lindane,and 16 HCH treatment or disposal sites.Additionally,at 31 of the sites lindane/technical HCH was used in applications with significant risk of soil pollution,such as wood treatment.The number of sites in this latter category is likely higher and will need further assessment.In addition to this inventory,the“HCH in EU project”produced detailed country reports,a guidance document for how to find potentially HCHimpacted sites,and a strategy document for implementing the sustainable management of these sites EU-wide,with proposed actions at the EU,country,and site level.Furthermore,the project has facilitated information exchange and e together with other related EU projects e has led to sharing information and best practices among member states and to establishing a network of authorities and other stakeholders working on the lindane/HCH waste legacy.This collaboration will facilitate a more systematic and better coordinated process to further assess,secure,and remediate the large HCH waste legacy and reduce and control lindane/HCH releases in the EU and possibly beyond.Such a coordinated effort and exchange of information for inventorying and managing contaminated sites might also be useful for other POPs such as PFOS/PFOA or dioxins.

Monitoring dioxins and PCBs in eggs as sensitive indicators for environmental pollution and global contaminated sites and recommendations for reducing and controlling releases and exposure

This review compiles information on PCDD/F-and PCB-contaminated eggs from 20 years of global egg monitoring around emission sources in four continents conducted by the International Pollutants Elimination Network(IPEN)and Arnika as well as a compilation of data from scientific literature.IPEN monitored 127 pooled egg samples including samples from 113 chicken flocks at potential PCDD/F-and PCB-contaminated sites around priority sources listed in the Stockholm Convention(e.g.waste incinerators,metal industries,cement plants,and open burning).99(88%)of pooled egg samples were above the EU maximum limits for PCDD/Fs(2.5 pg PCDD/F-TEQ/g fat)or the sum of PCDD/Fs and dioxinlike PCBs(5 pg PCDD/F-PCB-TEQ/g fat).Children consuming such eggs exceed the tolerable weekly intake(TWI).This demonstrates that close to 90%of these areas were not safe for the production of free-range eggs.Sixteen out of the 113 egg samples(14%)were contaminated above 50 pg TEQ/g fat and exceeded the EU maximum limit more than 10 times.From the 26 pooled egg samples around incinerators 24(92%)exceeded the limit with a mean of 43.1 pg TEQ/g fat(2.6e234 pg TEQ/g).All 21 egg samples around metal industries(4.4e112.6 pg TEQ/g fat)were above limits with mean concentration of 26.0 pg TEQ/g fat.Also all 7 egg samples measured at e-waste recycling sites were above limits(mean 308 pg TEQ/g fat).In 58(51%)pooled egg samples the PCB-TEQ was above 5 pg TEQ/g fat exceeding the EU maximum limit with dioxin-like PCBs alone.This highlights the role of commercial PCBs for global contamination with dioxin-like compounds.It was discovered that around metal industries,shredder plants,open burning sites of e-waste and dump sites,a high share of contamination was caused by dl-PCBs.This clearly shows severe PCB release from the end-of-life management of PCB-containing equipment in developing countries.Also highly contaminated eggs were found at many sites where plastic was incinerated.The highest contaminated egg sample ever measured came from an e-waste site in Ghana and had 856 pg TEQ/g fat plus 300 pg TEQ from brominated dioxins(PBDD/Fs).Other extreme PCDD/F contaminations of eggs were found at a chlor-alkali site(514 pg TEQ/g fat),Agent Orange contaminated areas in Vietnam(490,249 and 246 pg TEQ/g fat)and e-waste sites(568 and 520 pg TEQ/g fat).Where DR CALUX®bioassay revealed higher TEQ compared to measured PCDD/F-PCB-TEQ in IPEN studies,polybrominated PBDD/F were also measured and detected up to 300 pg TEQ/g fat at e-waste sites.One positive outcome from the IPEN studies is that all 10 pooled supermarket eggs in developing countries were below regulatory limit.Policy recommendations are made including:a systematic assessment of areas around PCDD/Fs and PCBs sources;measures for reduction of exposures of populations;urgent control of emission sources including PCB equipment,the open burning of plastic,and the use of plastic as fuel in boilers/incinerators in developing countries without air pollution control.Furthermore,soil limits need to be re-assessed and lowered for free-range poultry.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers(PBDEs)concentrations in soil,sediment and water samples around electronic wastes dumpsites in Lagos,Nigeria

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers(PBDEs)were listed in the Stockholm Convention as POPs because of their bio-accumulative,long-range and toxicity characteristics.Therefore,these should be managed and assessed by Parties of the convention in an environmentally sound manner.This present study assessed the status of PBDEs contamination at e-waste dumpsites in Lagos,Nigeria.Soil and sediment samples were collected from 3 e-waste dumpsites and water samples were collected from rain water ponds located within the e-waste dumpsites vicinities and control sites over a period of two years.The concentrations of ∑7PBDEs in soils from the e-waste dumpsites at 0e15 cm depth for the first and second year ranged from 141 to 302 ngg^(-1)dry weight,respectively while that of the control soils was 13.2 e27.2ngg^(-1)dry weight.These high concentrations may be attributed to the fact that open burning of electronic waste was the regular method of reducing the volume of e-waste at the sites.PBDE levels across the soil profile from 0 to 45 cm depth showed a gradual increase in PBDEs accumulation in the topsoil and migration into the sub-soil over the period of 2 years,but with no significant difference(pvalue=0.89).Sediments and water from the rain water ponds around the dumpsites were found to be contaminated by PBDEs with levels ranging from 51.4 to 85.8ngg^(-1)and 14.4 to 27.4ngg^(-1),respectively,while levels in control for sediment and water are 11.5ngg^(-1)and 2.43ngg^(-1)respectively.These,however indicates that there was significance difference between the PBDEs levels in water and sediment from the study sites with those of their respective controls(p-value for water was 0.01,while that for sediment was 0.03).The levels of PBDEs in this study sites were higher than those of the respective control.The range of PBDEs in e-waste dumpsites was comparable to those reported in USA and Europe but lower than those from China.Environmental samples from the e-waste dumpsites in Lagos were contaminated with PBDEs,there is therefore the need for proper disposal methods for end-of-life products especially those containing PBDEs in Nigeria.

Occurrence,removal and emission of per-and polyfluorinated alkyl substances(PFASs)from chrome plating industry:A case study in Southeast China

Per-and polyfluorinated alkyl substances(PFASs)have been used since the 1950s as chrome mist suppressant(CMS)in the electroplating industry.In this study,various samples within an electroplating factory,the related wastewater treatment facilities and surrounding environment at Hangzhou Bay in Southeast China were investigated for the occurrence and removal of PFASs.PFOS and 6:2 Cl-PFAES are predominant compounds in the samples.The PFASs in the bath solution of the workshops had some differences from the final releases,partly because of the historic usage and memory effects.PFOS and 6:2 Cl-PFAES were found in high concentration(5500 and 154.5 mg/L in influent,795 and 985 mg/L in effluent)in the electroplating Wastewater Treatment Plant(WWTP).The ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis(RO)treatment had a significant removal efficiency(74%e100%).On the other hand the reduction,precipitation and anaerobic/anoxic/oxic(A2/O)treatment had poor removal efficiency for PFASs.The receiving river samples had levels of PFASs between 300 and 1500 ng/L,and the concentrations of PFOS and 6:2 Cl-PFAES decreased with increasing distance to the municipal WWTP outlet due to dilution.The concentrations of PFOA in the river water samples were also high but might originate from other sources.The relevant ecological risk is noteworthy,especially for PFOS and PFOA for which limits have been defined.There is an urgent need to control plating industries in China and worldwide.Currently a GEF project related to Stockholm Convention implementation has reduced and possibly eliminated PFOS use and release in the plating industry in China.In addition,it will be important to evaluate and control the alternatives used.

Chlorinated paraffins in the technosphere:A review of available information and data gaps demonstrating the need to support the Stockholm Convention implementation

Chlorinated paraffins(CPs)have been produced for a wide range of applications,mostly in open uses,such as metalworking fluids,lubricants,coolants or additives in consumer goods.The production volume is more than one million tonnes requiring control of the lifecycle of these persistent and bioaccumulative chemicals.In May 2017,the Stockholm Convention amended its Annex A to list short chain chlorinated paraffins(SCCPs)as a Persistent Organic Pollutant(POP).Additionally,a limit for the presence of SCCPs in other CP mixtures was set at 1%by weight.CPs can be released to the environment throughout their lifecycle.Therefore,the major objective of this review was to assess and compile information on SCCPs and other CPs regarding their lifecycle in the technosphere to support the Stockholm Convention implementation.A few studies have assessed CP production plants and contamination in the surrounding environments.However,there was no systematic investigation of release routes from production and no assessment of associated landfills,even though these are known major pollution sources at other organochlorine production sites.Some studies have reported that industrial areas,where CPs have likely been used,have elevated levels of CPs in sediments and soil.However,although CPs are largely released when used as metalworking fluids or lubricants,no systematic assessment of releases has been conducted at the thousands of sites where CPs are used in high volumes.Many CPs,mainly medium chain chlorinated paraffins(MCCPs)and SCCPs,are used as additives in the production of consumer goods,resulting in exposure risks.Levels above the European Union regulation for SCCPs of 1500 mg kg^-1 and up to approx.20%are frequently found.The end-of-life management of CP-containing products is difficult since no labelling requirement exists even for products containing SCCPs.The Stockholm Convention prohibits the recycling of SCCP-containing products,which will result in challenges recycling the impacted waste categories.The activities under the Stockholm Convention related to SCCPs,such as the inventory,phase-out,and management of impacted products,provide opportunities to address existing data gaps and challenges.Special attention needs to be given to developing countries with lacking analytical capacity as well as waste management and destruction capacity.

Initial assessment of imports of chlorinated paraffins into Nigeria and the need of improvement of the Stockholm and Rotterdam Conventions

Short-chain and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins(SCCPs/MCCPs)are of concern due to their persistence,bioaccumulation,and toxicity.SCCPs were listed in 2017 as persistent organic pollutants(POPs)in the Stockholm Convention and Rotterdam Convention for Prior Informed Consent(PIC)procedure.MCCPs are evaluated in the POPs Reviewing Committee for listing.Studies in Africa demonstrate high SCCP/MCCP levels in house dust and human milk.Therefore,this study undertook an initial assessment of the production and import situation in Nigeria.The Nigerian government has not assessed SCCPs yet and has no registered exemptions for SCCPs and therefore should not produce or use SCCPs.Also,Nigeria has not notified Rotterdam Convention of PIC procedure and,therefore,no SCCP should be imported into Nigeria.Since no local production of SCCPs/MCCPs was observed in Nigeria,this study therefore compiled data on importation of SCCPs/MCCPs and products which may likely contain these chemicals from the UN Comtrade Database for the period 1996 to 2018.Despite the listing of SCCPs in the Rotterdam Convention,there is still no specific Harmonized System(HS)codes for SCCPs/MCCPs.This study therefore used HS codes of product categories known to contain SCCPs/MCCPs.HS substance categories under which SCCP/MCCPs are usually imported include plasticisers and other product categories that amounted to 229,779 and 518,342 tonnes respectively but without specific information on the type of plasticiser.About 39%of PVC and rubber imports of 2,683,015 tonnes and 3,516,052 tonnes respectively contain plasticisers.Based on the SCCP and MCCP impact factors from literature for China,the highest amount of SCCP(33,712 tonnes)was imported in the different PVC products while rubber products accounted to 1386 tonnes and PUR foam to 2331 tonnes.The amount of imported MCCPs in PVC products(25,599 tonnes)and rubber products(32,317 tonnes)was in the same order of magnitude while MCCP imported in PUR foam was estimated to 2020 tonnes.At the end of life(EoL),these product categories most likely contain appreciable amount of SCCPs possibly above Basel Convention low POP limit.This will hamper recycling and circular economy for these waste categories and generate POPs stockpiles/wastes that are difficult to manage/destroy in Africa.Hence there is an urgent need for specific HS Codes for SCCPs and industrial POPs currently produced/used for better control.Presently,products containing SCCPs are not labelled and are imported in huge quantities into Nigeria,without monitoring.In its current form this rather conveys a pseudo-safety for industrial POPs that do not exist.The Rotterdam Convention needs to establish specific HS codes for POPs for an appropriate PIC procedure and effective control of industrial POPs still produced.Furthermore,products containing SCCPs(and other POPs)require labelling and should also be covered under the Rotterdam Convention.The study highlights that Nigeria should urgently update the NIP for chemicals listed from 2015 to 2019 with a detailed SCCP inventory and develop monitoring capacity for market surveys.The Rotterdam Convention does not function fully and need to significantly improve to assure PIC procedure.

Minimizing the environmental impact of PFAS by using specialized coagulants for the treatment of PFAS polluted waters and for the decontamination of firefighting equipment

Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances(PFASs)represent an increasingly global challenge for keeping water and soil“non-toxic”.100 of millions of people are exposed to PFAS levels of concern,in particular,around PFAS production sites and sites where PFASs are/were used and released or disposed.The Stockholm Convention established recommendations to systematically assess PFOS pollution which can be transposed to all PFASs considering that PFASs are an issue of concern under The Strategic Approach to International Chemical Management(SAICM).One major wide-spread source of environmental pollution is the long-term use of PFAS-containing fire extinguishing agents.Strategies for the reduction of human exposure need to reduce and were feasible eliminate the current uses of PFASs and reduce and eliminate the human exposure from the contamination of the environment from past uses including contaminated drinking water.The current study shows that well-known methods of water treatment,especially the use of materials for adsorption and ion exchange,can often neither guarantee satisfactory cleaning results nor economically justifiable filter running times at high PFAS concentrations and complex matrix conditions.Their combination with a pre-precipitation stage using specialized precipitants can significantly optimize treatment successes.PFAS is still being released into the environment in considerable quantities by e.g.the use of so-called aqueous film forming foams(AFFF).Fire departments are increasingly trying to reduce the risks associated with the use of AFFF agents for the health of firefighting personnel and the environment by replacing AFFF foaming agents with fluorine-free foaming agents.If the fluorine-containing foaming agents are simply replaced,considerable residual PFAS loads often remain in the fire extinguishing systems contaminated with PFAS(fire engines,fire boats,stationary fire extinguishing systems,etc.),which are then discharged further into the environment during renewed operations-normally at a reduced concentration.The current study demonstrate that a conscientious decontamination of systems previously in contact with PFAS is therefore urgently required.Here,too,precipitants specialized for PFAS adsorption can make an important contribution to protecting the environment.Sites were firefighting equipment has been cleaned over years can also be considered contaminated and need assessment and possibly remediation.

Dioxin sources to the aquatic environment: Re-assessing dioxins in industrial processes and possible emissions to the aquatic

Releases of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans(PCDD/PCDFs)from industrial or thermal processes to the aquatic environment are considered small compared to emissions to air today.However,industrial processes have occasionally released PCDD/PCDFs into local aquatic environments..PCDD/PCDF formation and releases were re-examined based on investigations conducted before the introduction of water quality regulations in Japan.Emphasis was given to PCDD/PCDF formation in various industrial processes such as the manufacture of acetylene and caprolactam.In acetylene production,PCDD/PCDFs are formed in the oxidative process using chlorine to remove impurities,with PCDFs formed with the particular chlorine pattern with 1,2,7,8-TetraCDF,2,3,7,8-TetraCDFs and 1,2,3,4,7,8-HexaCDF as maker congeners and low PCDDs levels.This indicates that acetylene production residues contain organochlorines.In caprolactam production,formation of PCDD/PCDFs in the cyclohexane photonitrosation process has been confirmed and the emission factor for PCDD/PCDF releases to water from for caprolactam manufacture was estimated with an emission factor for releases to the aquatic environment of 0.25±0.04 mgTEQ/t.A range of additional processes with PCDD/PCDF release were also found during the Japanese survey.Overall,the formation processes were placed in two categories:(A)chemical synthesis processes and (B)flue gas treatment of high temperature processes.The final effluent water met the PCDD/PCDF limits by applying advanced treatment for PCDD/PCDF removal such as activated carbon treatment.The survey shows that industrial processes involving elemental chlorine or other processes that facilitate chlorination or use chlorinating chemicals should be assessed and controlled for PCDD/PCDFs and other unintentional POPs releases to water.In such surveys,chemicals from the chlorine and organochlorine industry should also be assessed for PCDD/PCDFs and other unintentional POPs contamination as proposed by the UNEP Toolkit.The current study can contribute to the Stockholm Convention implementation of Article 5 of the Stockholm Convention to take measures to reduce the release of UPOPs from anthropogenic sources with the goal of their continuing minimization and,where feasible,ultimate elimination.

Comprehensive monitoring of chlorinated aromatic and heteroaromatic pollutants at sites contaminated by chlorine production processes to inform policy making

The production of chlorine by the chlor-alkali process using graphite electrodes was one of the largest sources of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans(PCDD/PCDFs)in history with estimates in the kg TEQ range for individual factories.In addition,the chlorine production predecessor processes in the former Leblanc soda factories generated large amounts of PCDD/PCDFs,also in kg TEQ range for individual sites.In both processes coal tar,used as pitch binder for electrodes in the chlor-alkali process or tars for sealing chlorine chambers,was the major source for PCDD/PCDFs formation.The complex PAH mixture in the tars which were chlorinated in the processes contained approx.1%dibenzofuran.Therefore in this study we screened the full range of chlorinated aromatic and heteroaromatic compounds in contaminated soils from former chlor-alkali plants in Germany and Japan as well as from a German Leblanc factory,using high resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry GC-HR-TOF-MS.At all three sites the full range of unintentionally produced persistent organic pollutants(POPs)listed in the Stockholm Convention(PCDFs,PCDDs,PCBs,PCNs,HCB,HCBD and PeCBz)were present at high ppb levels and TEQ was up to several 100,000 ng/kg soil in hot spot areas.Additionally,a wide range of other polychlorinated(PC-)PAHs(PC-phenanthrene/anthracene,PC-pyrene/fluoranthene,PC-benzo(a)anthracene/chrysene)were detected.Some of these compound classes were present in one to two order of magnitude higher concentrations compared to PCDFs.Furthermore,polychlorinated methyldibenzofurans,polychlorinated dimethyl-/ethyl-dibenzofurans,and polychlorinated carbazoles e the N-analogue of dibenzofuran-were detected at levels comparable to PCDFs at all three sites.Polychlorinated benzonitriles were detected in addition to chlorobenzenes as monoaromatic pollutant.Since all three factories have stopped production 50e120 years ago,all detected chlorinated aromatics can be regarded as very persistent.The technologies have been used in several hundred locations globally.These(former)chlorine production sites should be assessed for contamination and their contemporary threat to humans and the environment should be evaluated.The toxicity of most of these polychlorinated PAHs and hetero-PAHs is unknown but due to their related structures,similar toxicity profiles can be expected and need to be investigated.Furthermore,all processes where chlorine and complex organic material are present should be screened for the entire resulting chlorinated pollutant mixture,the detailed fingerprints should be documented,and the overall toxicological risk assessed for individual processes to inform policy making.

Disposal of waste-based fuels and raw materials in cement plants in Germany and Switzerland e What can be learned for global coincineration practice and policy?

The limit value for emissions of total organic carbon(TOC)for incinerators in the European Union(EU)is 10 mg/m3.However,clinker burning is a material conversion process during which TOC emissions from the fuels occur concurrently with the thermal decomposition of organic material from the raw material mixture(limestone,marl,shale,etc.)in the preheater,which alone can emit more than 10 mg/m3.Therefore,the German legislature has created an exemption that allows authorities to set higher limit values for cement kilns if the cause of the higher emissions is the natural raw material mixture and not the co-incinerated waste.Separating the effects requires a test to determine the baseline emission of the natural raw material or waste raw material.Up until now,these tests were only used internally by companies.By applying such tests,the emissions from the fuels,particularly from waste-based fuels,can be determined,restricted and controlled.TOC emissions from natural materials cannot be avoided.In Switzerland and Germany these emissions are on average around 20e35 mg/m3.Switzerland has recently set a high TOC limit value of 80 mg/m3 for cement kilns,independent of the source of organic emissions,and even allows the use of polychlorinated biphenyl(PCB)contaminated soils as raw material(up to 10 mg/kg).This limit is too high and can result in unnecessary emissions of carcinogenic benzene,PCBs and other pollutants.Both the natural raw materials and waste raw materials emit organic carbon.However,there is one major difference.The natural raw materials emit mostly aliphatic compounds at temperatures up to about 600C,whereas the organic compounds originating from waste-based raw material components can include hazardous pollutants like polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs)and other persistent organic pollutants(POPs),which desorb in the preheater and are released into the environment.Therefore,waste raw materials such as soils contaminated with POPs or other semivolatile toxic chemicals cannot be introduced via the raw mill-(leading to desorption in the preheater)but need to be fed in the kiln inlet.Cement kilns treating POPs or raw materials with problematic semivolatile organics need strict control and possibly continuous monitoring for dioxins and other POPs.

Inventory and action plan for PFOS and related substances in Suriname as basis for Stockholm Convention implementation

Within the framework of the Stockholm Convention implementation in Suriname,the first inventory of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid(PFOS)has been developed.The major stocks of PFOS are firefighting foams with minor stocks in pesticides(ant baits)and possibly carpets.The inventory of firefighting foams assessed the import,current stocks and major use sites and recent releases.Considerable amount of PFOS and potentially PFOS containing firefighting foams are stored at the military base,the oil company and small firefighting departments throughout the country.The total amount of stored PFAS firefighting foam in Suriname is estimated to be at least 275.6 tonnes,where the major stockpile of 206 tonnes is at the oil storage facilities.For some of these foams PFOS content is confirmed and for others it is not clear if the foam contains PFOS or other per-or polyfluorinated alkylated substances(PFAS).The upper estimate of PFOS content is 4133 kg in these foams.Additionally,PFOS or other PFAS has also been discovered in fire extinguishers in institutions.The total amount of PFOS related substance EtFOSA imported with the pesticide sulfluramid was 75 kg.The imports were banned in 2014 and is controlled.A considerable amount of synthetic carpets are in stores even produced before 2003 where main use of PFOS from 3 M took place possibly containing PFOS related substances.A compilation of potentially PFOS contaminated sites has been made.Potentially contaminated sites result from firefighting foam use,dumpsites and sulfluramid use.The airport where firefighting foam was applied is above a major drinking water reservoir,where an urgent assessment is needed.Due to the lack of analytical capacity for PFOS and precursors,drinking water,firefighting foam or impacted carpets,could not been analysed.An action plan for the control of PFOS and other PFAS has been developed considering the synergy of the Stockholm Convention and the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management(SAICM)addressing this emerging pollution issue for developing countries.

State of art control of dioxins/unintentional POPs in the secondary copper industry: A review to assist policy making with the implementation of the Stockholm Convention

Article 5 of the Stockholm Convention requires that each Party shall take measures to reduce the releases from anthropogenic sources of unintentional persistent organic pollutants(UPOPs),with the goal of their continuing minimization and,where feasible,their ultimate elimination.A major source of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans(PCDD/Fs)and other unintentional POPs releases,both in China and worldwide,is the metal industry in particular secondary metal industries such as copper smelting.More than 50%of the global secondary copper production is now in China and high levels of PCDD/Fs are released from these operations with the national inventory of China reporting a total of 1133.8 g toxic equivalents(TEQ)yr1.Consequently the Global Environment Facility(GEF)is supporting the project‘UPOPs Reduction through best available techniques and best environmental practices(BAT/BEP)in the secondary copper production sector’in China compromising>50%of the global secondary copper production.As part of this project,information on relevant UPOPs from the metal industry have been reviewed and is presented here.This information should also be useful for other(developing)countries for controlling UPOPs releases from metal industries.This review and the information it contains provides a robust resource for policy makers,the industry and researchers to improve secondary copper production to BAT/BEP standards in relation to the reduction of PCDD/Fs and other UPOPs release.The contents include the details required to assist the understanding of the formation of chlorinated UPOPs along with their brominated and brominated-chlorinated analogues.It reviews the international sources of information on BAT/BEP,including the integrated approach considered in the European BAT Reference document,and shows how this can be used to achieve an overall reduction of pollutant releases from the industry.The current national standards of PCDD/F limits to air,water and solid residues have been compiled and are also included.Challenges which need to be addressed,such as the current international lack to consider brominated and mixed bromo-chloro PXDD/Fs which might be more environmentally significant than PCDD/Fs in some facilities e are also discussed.The study includes a brief description of the steps China has taken to change the national regulatory framework and to improve the sustainability of its secondary metal industry.The Stockholm Convention BAT/BEP guidelines recommend consideration of integrated pollution prevention and control and sustainable production as general principles which parties may incorporate when applying the BAT/BEP guidelines and guidance.This holistic approach is considered in the current project and in the improvement of the pilot facilities and will also be considered in the replication of experiences in other facilities.Using this approach ensures the implementation of the Stockholm Convention can contribute to integrated pollution prevention and control,the development of a circular economy and consequently to genuinely sustainable development thus contributing to different sustainable development goals(SDGs).It is hoped this approach will be adopted in other developing and transition economies and thus help to achieve improvements of the secondary metal industry globally.

Flammability standards for furniture,building insulation and electronics:Benefit and risk

Flammability standards for furniture,building insulation and electronics were established in an attempt to mitigate fire risk.However,research suggests that some of these flammability standards should be reconsidered.High levels of flame retardant chemicals,primarily organohalogens,are added to these products in order to comply with fire safety standards.Organohalogen and organophosphate flame retardants are associated with adverse health effects such as diminished immune function,endocrine disruption,and cancer.Further,flame retardants may not provide a significant fire safety benefit as used in many products,and these chemicals can hinder material recycling.We reviewed evidence of how flammability standards drive the continued use of harmful flame retardants and investigated cases in which flame retardants are used to achieve standard compliance without providing a significant fire safety benefit.The widespread continuous use of toxic flame retardant chemicals demonstrates that toxicological evidence and chemical-by-chemical regulation alone are not sufficient to prevent their inclusion in consumer products.However,recent experiences show that updated flammability standards can reduce the use of flame retardants while maintaining,or even increasing,fire safety.Additional opportunities exist for improved standards that could further decrease flame retardant use and maintain fire safety.

Science and policy of legacy and emerging POPs towards Implementing International Treaties

A recent study has highlighted that chemical and plastic pollution has surpassed global boundaries and that humanity is out of the safe operating space[1].One important group of chemicals which are major contributors to this pollution are persistent organic pollutants(POPs)which are toxic,bio-accumulative and persistent in multiple environmental matrices and therefore accumulate on our planet,in biota and humans.This is documented by a review in this special issue[2]giving an overview of dioxin and PCB contamination in eggs around industrial emitters and other pollution sources in 4 continents which found that approximately 90%of eggs from free-range chicken are unfit for consumption considering the EU regulatory limits and the tolerable intake set by FAO/WHO[2].Considering that some of these sources are widespread in some of countries such as open burning of plastics in landfills/dump sites and backyard burning or combusting plastics as a fuel source in boilers and incinerators as well as secondary metal industries,the overall contaminated area is huge and is increasing and will likely stay contaminated for decades or even centuries[2].