The Impact of Deformation on Vortex Development in a Baroclinic Moist Atmosphere

A mathematical relation between deformation and vertical vorticity tendency is built by introducing the frontogenesis function and the complete vertical vorticity equation, which is derived by virtue of moist potential vorticity. From the mathematical relation, it is shown that properly configured atmospheric conditions can make deformation exert a positive contribution to vortex development at rates comparable to other favorable factors. The effect of deformation on vortex development is not only related to the deformation itself, but also depends on the current thermodynamic and dynamic structures of the atmosphere, such as the convective stability, moist baroclinicity and vertical wind shear （or horizontal vorticity）. A diagnostic study of a heavy-rainfall case that occurred during 20-22 July 2012 shows that deformation has the most remarkable effect on the increase in vertical vorticity during the rapid development stage of the low vortex during its whole life cycle. This feature is mainly due to the existence of an approximate neutral layer （about 700 hPa） in the atmosphere where the convective stability tends to be zero. The neutral layer makes the effect of deformation on the vertical vorticity increase significantly during the vortex development stage, and thus drives the vertical vorticity to increase.

Analysis of the Characteristics of Inertia-Gravity Waves during an Orographic Precipitation Event

A numerical experiment was performed using the Weather Research and Forecasting（WRF） model to analyze the generation and propagation of inertia-gravity waves during an orographic rainstorm that occurred in the Sichuan area on 17 August 2014. To examine the spatial and temporal structures of the inertia-gravity waves and identify the wave types, three wavenumber-frequency spectral analysis methods（Fourier analysis, cross-spectral analysis, and wavelet cross-spectrum analysis）were applied. During the storm, inertia-gravity waves appeared at heights of 10-14 km, with periods of 80-100 min and wavelengths of 40-50 km. These waves were generated over a mountain and propagated eastward at an average speed of 15-20 m s^（-1）. Meanwhile, comparison between the reconstructed inertia-gravity waves and accumulated precipitation showed there was a mutual promotion process between them. The Richardson number and Scorer parameter were used to demonstrate that the eastward-moving inertia-gravity waves were trapped in an effective atmospheric ducting zone with favorable reflector and critical level conditions, which were the primary causes of the long lives of the waves. Finally, numerical experiments to test the sensitivity to terrain and diabatic heating were conducted, and the results suggested a cooperative effect of terrain and diabatic heating contributed to the propagation and enhancement of the waves.

Convective Bursts Episode of the Rapidly Intensified Typhoon Mujigae(2015)

Convective burst(CB) characteristics at distinct stages of a rapidly intensified Typhoon Mujigae(2015), are investigated based on a 72-h simulation. The spatial features show that almost all CB elements develop in the eyewall. The number of CBs in the inner-core region within a 100 km radius—which account for a large proportion of the total CBs, with a sharp increase about 6 h before the onset of rapid intensification(RI)—provides some indication of the RI of the typhoon. The CBs during pre-RI and RI are examined from dynamic and thermodynamic viewpoints. The combination of lower-level convergent inflow and upper-level divergent outflow pushes a relay-race-like transmission of convective activity, favorable for the development of deep convection. A double warm-core structure is induced by the centripetal outflow sinking and warming associated with CBs, which directly accelerates RI by a sudden decrease in hydrostatic pressure. By utilizing the convection activity degree(CAD) index derived from the local total energy anomaly, a correlation formula between CBs and CAD is deduced.Furthermore, an intense CAD(ICAD) signal threshold(with a value equal to 100) to predict CBs is obtained. It is verified that this ICAD threshold is effective for estimating the occurrence of a CB episode and predicting RI of a typhoon. Therefore,this threshold may be a valuable tool for identifying CB episodes and forecasting rapidly intensified typhoons.

A Three-dimensional Wave Activity Flux of Inertia–Gravity Waves and Its Application to a Rainstorm Event

A three-dimensional transformed Eulerian-mean(3D TEM) equation under a non-hydrostatic and non-geostrophic assumption is deduced in this study. The vertical component of the 3D wave activity flux deduced here is the primary difference from previous studies, which is suitable to mesoscale systems. Using the 3D TEM equation, the energy propagation of the inertia–gravity waves and how the generation and dissipation of the inertia–gravity waves drive the mean flow can be examined. During the mature stage of a heavy precipitation event, the maximum of the Eliassen–Palm(EP) flux divergence is primarily concentrated at the height of 10–14 km, where the energy of the inertia–gravity waves propagates forward(eastward) and upward. Examining the contribution of each term of the 3D TEM equation shows that the EP flux divergence is the primary contributor to the mean flow tendency. The EP flux divergence decelerates the zonal wind above and below the high-level jet at the height of 10 km and 15 km, and accelerates the high-level jet at the height of 12–14 km. This structure enhances the vertical wind shear of the environment and promotes the development of the rainstorm.

Potential Deformation and Its Application to the Diagnosis of Heavy Precipitation in Mesoscale Convective Systems

Many observational studies have shown that deformation, like vertical vorticity and divergence, is closely related to the occurrence and distribution of strong precipitation. In this paper, to involve deformation in precipitation diagnosis, a new parameter called potential deformation（PD） is derived and then applied to precipitation detection within a simulated mesoscale convective system（MCS）. It is shown that PD includes both stretching deformation and shearing deformation and shares similar characteristics with deformation insofar as it does not change with the rotating coordinate. Diagnosis of the simulated MCS reveals that PD performs well in tracing the MCS＇ precipitation. In terms of their distributional pattern, the large-value areas of PD are similar to the precipitation in the different development stages of the MCS. A detailed analysis of the physical processes contained within the PD shows that it can reflect the three-dimensional moisture variation,vertical wind shear and wind deformation within the MCS. These structures are usually a comprehensive reflection of the characteristics of the surface cold pool, rear inflow jet, downward cold air flow and upward warm moist flow within the precipitating convective cells. For this reason, the PD shows much stronger anomalies in the precipitating atmosphere than the non-precipitating atmosphere, which implies considerable potential for its application in detecting heavy precipitation within MCSs.

Evolution of Instability before and during a Torrential Rainstorm in North China

NCEP-NCAR reanalysis data were used to analyze the characteristics and evolution mechanism of convective and symmetric instability before and during a heavy rainfall event that occurred in Beijing on 21 July 2012.Approximately twelve hours before the rainstorm,the atmosphere was mainly dominated by convective instability in the lower level of 900-800 hPa.The strong southwesterly low-level jet conveyed the moist and warm airflow continuously to the area of torrential rain,maintaining and enhancing the unstable energy.When the precipitation occurred,unstable energy was released and the convective instability weakened.Meanwhile,due to the baroclinicity enhancement in the atmosphere,the symmetric instability strengthened,maintaining and promoting the subsequent torrential rain.Deriving the convective instability tendency equation demonstrated that the barotropic component of potential divergence and the advection term played a major role in enhancing the convective instability before the rainstorm.Analysis of the tendency equation of moist potential vorticity showed that the coupled term of vertical vorticity and the baroclinic component of potential divergence was the primary factor influencing the development of symmetric instability during the precipitation.Comparing the effects of these factors on convective instability and symmetric instability showed some correlation.

Organized Warm-Sector Rainfall in the Coastal Region of South China in an Anticyclone Synoptic Situation:Observational Analysis

Organized warm-sector rainfall(OWSR)near the coast of South China tends to occur in certain synoptic situations characterized with either a low-level jet or an anticyclone,with the latter being less investigated.This paper fills the gap by analyzing 15 OWSR events that occurred in an anticyclone synoptic situation during the pre-summer rainy season of 2011-2016,based on high-resolution observational and reanalysis data.The results show that the anticyclone synoptic situation produces marked northerly boundary-layer winds inland and obvious northeasterly,easterly/southwesterly,and southeasterly boundary-layer winds near the coasts of eastern Guangdong,western Guangdong,and Guangxi,respectively.The coastal boundary-layer winds promote favorable environmental conditions and strong convergence for convection initiation;consequently,OWSR is prone to occur near the coasts of western Guangdong and Guangxi,but exhibits different formation and propagation features in the following two subareas.(1)The southeasterly boundary-layer winds tend to converge near the border area between Guangxi and Guangdong(BGG),promoting the formation of a stable convective line along the mountains.The convective line persists with support of upper-level southwesterly winds that facilitate convective cells to propagate along the convective line,producing heavy OWSR along the mountains near BGG.(2)In contrast,a west-east convective line tends to form and maintain near the coast of Yangjiang(YJ)area,about 200 km east of BGG,owing to stable convergence between the easterly(or southwesterly)and the northerly boundary-layer winds reinforced by the mountains near YJ.Moreover,the coupling of upper-level westerly winds with the easterly(southwesterly)boundary-layer winds facilitates expansion(eastward propagation)of the convective line,causing west-east-oriented heavy OWSR near the coast of YJ.In a word,this study reveals refined properties of OWSR initiation and development in the anticyclone synoptic situation,which may help improve the forecast skill of OWSR during the pre-summer rainy season in South China.