Integrative biogeography: Validating hypotheses of species distribution

DEAR EDITOR,Biogeography is a scientific field dedicated to the investigation of the origins and distribution patterns of organisms,as well as predicting future alterations in their geographical distributions(Cox&Moore,2005).However,the majority of conclusions drawn within the field of biogeography are hypothetical.Rigorous testing of these biogeographic hypotheses remains a considerable challenge.This paper presents the concept of“integrative biogeography”,which emphasizes the experimental testing of biogeographic hypotheses through studies on geological history,as well as biotic and abiotic factors(Figure 1).

Regression of East Tethys resulted in a center of biodiversity: A study of Mysmenidae spiders from the Gaoligong Mountains, China

DEAR EDITOR,This research involved the study of 31 species from the spider family Mysmenidae Petrunkevitch,1928,found in the Gaoligong Mountains of China,including one new genus and 13 new species.Our results suggested that regression of East Tethys contributed to the appearance of a center of biodiversity.The Tethys,a classical and hot topic in geology.It has undergone a succession of significant geodynamic transformations,transitioning from an ancient ocean to the current Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt.Notably,the East Tethys,serving as an invaluable lens through which to study continental geology and geodynamics,has played a pivotal role in triggering the major geological reconstructions of the entire Tethys(Pan et al.,1997).

Indian monsoon drove the dispersal of the thoracica group of Scytodes spitting spiders

We examined the global biogeography of the Scytodes thoracica group of spitting spiders based on 23 years of sampling at the species level(61 species in the thoracica group and 84 species of Scytodes)using DNA data from six loci.Our results indicated that the thoracica group initially dispersed from Southeast Asia to East Africa between 46.5 and 33.0 million years ago,and dispersal events intensified between Southeast/South Asia and East/South Africa from the early to late Miocene.The timing of these events indicates that Asian-African faunal exchange of the thoracica group was driven by the Indian monsoon,and the pattern of dispersal suggests that colonialization took root when the Indian monsoon shifted from a North-South direction to an East-West direction from the middle Eocene.

Why we need a new journal in diversity and conservation

It is not difficult to imagine humankind as stewards and custodians of the vast,complex,unique,and awe-inspiring property called Planet Earth.We are duty-bound to take good care of this priceless property,for our own well-being,and for the well-being of our future generations.We take stock of the value of our property by understanding its fragile biodiversity;and we safeguard its value by monitoring and protecting it.Just as a piece of real estate is livable only if it is wellsupported by utilities and other municipal services,we have a duty to ensure that the natural habitats and the crucial ecological services they provide are in tip-top conditions.This requires a deep understanding how an intricate,vibrant,and resilient ecosystem works,and how natural forces and manmade decisions can impact its sustainability,both positively and negatively.

Unknown species from China:The case of phrurolithid spiders(Araneae,Phrurolithidae)

DEAR EDITOR,Three new genera and 46 new species of phrurolithid spiders(Araneae,Phrurolithidae)are described from Jiangxi Province,southern China.These results support our hypothesis that a large percentage of China’s species remain unknown(Li,2020).Some 250 years after Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus devised a formal system for classifying the diversity of nature.

Challenging Wallacean and Linnean shortfalls:Ectatosticta spiders(Araneae,Hypochilidae)from China

Ectatosticta spiders from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau were studied.Multilocus molecular and morphological data identified 16 putative species,including seven new species:Ectatosticta wenshu Lin&S.Li sp.nov.,Ectatosticta baima Lin&S.Li sp.nov.,Ectatosticta helii Lin&S.Li sp.nov.,Ectatosticta shaseng Lin&S.Li sp.nov.,Ectatosticta puxian Lin&S.Li sp.nov.,Ectatosticta qingshi Lin&S.Li sp.nov.,and Ectatosticta baixiang Lin&S.Li sp.nov.This increase in the number of Ectatosticta species from a single species in 2008 to 16 in the current study highlights the Linnean shortfall in China.The previously known distribution of Ectatosticta spiders was from one locality in Shaanxi and is now expanded to the east and south of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

Comparative transcriptomics highlights convergent evolution of energy metabolic pathways in group-living spiders

Although widely thought to be aggressive, solitary,and potentially cannibalistic, some spider species have evolved group-living behaviors. The distinct transition provides the framework to uncover groupliving evolution. Here, we conducted a comparative transcriptomic study and examined patterns of molecular evolution in two independently evolved group-living spiders and twelve solitary species. We report that positively selected genes among groupliving spider lineages are significantly enriched in nutrient metabolism and autophagy pathways. We also show that nutrient-related genes of group-living spiders convergently experience amino acid substitutions and accelerated relative evolutionary rates. These results indicate adaptive convergence of nutrient metabolism that may ensure energy supply in group-living spiders. The decelerated evolutionary rate of autophagy-related genes in group-living lineages is consistent with an increased constraint on energy homeostasis as would be required in a group-living environment. Together, the results show that energy metabolic pathways play an important role in the transition to group-living in spiders.

Cenozoic Tethyan changes dominated Eurasian animal evolution and diversity patterns

Cenozoic tectonic evolution in the Tethyan region has greatly changed the landforms and environment of Eurasia,driving the evolution of animals and greatly affecting the diversity patterns of Eurasian animals.By combining the latest Tethyan paleogeographic models and some recently published Eurasian zoological studies,we systematically summarize how tectonic evolution in the Tethyan region has influenced the evolution and diversity patterns of Eurasian animals.The convergence of continental plates,closure of Tethys Sea,and Tethyan sea-level changes have directly affected the composition and spatial distribution of Eurasian animal diversity.The topographic and environmental changes caused by Tethyan tectonics have determined regional animal diversity in Eurasia by influencing animal origin,dispersal,preservation,diversification,and extinction.The ecological transformations resulted in the emergence of new habitats and niches,which promoted animal adaptive evolution,specialization,speciation,and expansion.We highlight that the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Tethyan region has been responsible for much of the alteration in Eurasian animal distribution and has been an essential force in shaping organic evolution.Furthermore,we generalize a general pattern that Tethyan geological events are linked with Eurasian animal evolution and diversity dynamics.

Tip of the iceberg:species diversity of Pholcus spiders(Araneae,Pholcidae)in the Changbai Mountains,Northeast China

Despite 250 years of taxonomic classification and over 1.2 million species already catalogued,known species diversity is only a small part of true species diversity on Earth,and thus,the known species are only the tip of iceberg.Here,we investigated the genus Pholcus Walckenaer,1805 of the family Pholcidae C.L.Koch,1850 in the Changbai Mountains,Northeast China,which provides an excellent case of high species diversity.Previously,only 14 endemic Pholcus spiders,all belonging to the P.phungiformes species group,and two introduced species P.manueli Gertsch,1937 and P.zichyi Kulczyński,1901 from the P.crypticolens species group,have been recorded from this area.Our study confirmed 11 new species of the P.phungiformes species group based on morphology and three methods of molecular species delimitation:P.gaizhou Yao&Li,sp.nov.,P.guanshui Yao&Li,sp.nov.,P.jiguanshan Yao&Li,sp.nov.,P.longxigu Yao&Li,sp.nov.,P.luoquanbei Yao&Li,sp.nov.,P.shenshi Yao&Li,sp.nov.,P.tianmenshan Yao&Li,sp.nov.,P.wangjiang Yao&Li,sp.nov.,P.xingqi Yao&Li,sp.nov.,P.yaoshan Yao&Li,sp.nov.,and P.yuhuangshan Yao&Li,sp.nov.This study brings the fauna of the P.phungiformes species group from the Changbai Mountains to 25 species,approximately two times more than previously known,which could indicate that species diversity in the area is underestimated for all arthropod fauna.

Integrative taxonomy of Leptonetela spiders (Araneae, Leptonetidae), with descriptions of 46 new species

Extreme environments, such as subterranean habitats, are suspected to be responsible for morphologically inseparable cryptic or sibling species and can bias biodiversity assessment. A DNA barcode is a short, standardized DNA sequence used for taxonomic purposes and has the potential to lessen the challenges presented by a biotic inventory. Here, we investigate the diversity of the genus Leptonetela Kratochvil, 1978 that is endemic to karst systems in Eurasia using DNA barcoding. We analyzed 624 specimens using one mitochondrial gene fragment （COl）. The results show that DNA barcoding is an efficient and rapid species identification method in this genus. DNA barcoding gap and automatic barcode gap discovery （ABGD） analyses indicated the existence of 90 species, a result consistent with previous taxonomic hypotheses, and supported the existence of extreme male pedipalpal tibial spine and median apophysis polymorphism in Leptonetela species, with direct implications for the taxonomy of the group and its diversity. Based on the molecular and morphological evidence, we delimit and diagnose 90 Leptonetela species, including the type species Leptonetela kanellisi （Deeleman-Reinhold, 1971）. Forty-six of them are previously undescribed. The female of Leptonetela zhai Wang ＆ Li, 2011 is reported for the first time. Leptonetela tianxinensis （Tong ＆ Li, 2008） comb. nov. is transferred from the genus Leptoneta Simon, 1872; the genus Guineta Lin ＆ Li, 2010 syn. nov. is a junior synonym of Leptonetela; Leptonetela gigachela （Lin ＆ Li, 2010） comb. nov. is transferred from Guineta. The genus Sinoneta LJn ＆ Li, 2010 syn. nov. is a junior synonym of Leptonetela; Leptonetela notabilis （Lin ＆ Li, 2010） comb. nov. and Leptonetela sexdigiti （Lin ＆ Li, 2010） comb. nov. are transferred from Sinoneta; Leptonetela sanchahe Wang ＆ Li nom. nov. is proposed as a replacement name for Sinoneta palmata （Chen et a 2010） because Leptonetela palmata is preoccupied.

Taxonomy is the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation SEABRI reports on biological surveys in Southeast Asia

The Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute （SEABRI） is an international scientific research and education organization affiliated directly to the Chinese Academy of Sciences （CAS） and managed by the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden （XTBG）. By harnessing its connections with all CAS institutes, local institutes and international agencies and leveraging on their resources, it seeks to make a significant contribution to biodiversity conservation in Southeast Asia.

Nine new species of the spider genus Stedocys (Araneae, Scytodidae) from China and Thailand

Nine new species of the genus Stedocys Ono, 1995 are described： Stedocys gaolingensis Wu ＆ Lisp. n. （♂♀, Guangxi）, S. huangniuensis Wu ＆ Lisp. n. （♀, Guangxi）, S. ludiyanensis Wu ＆ Lisp. n. （♂♀, Guangxi）, S. matuoensis Wu ＆ Lisp. n. （♀, Guangxi）, S. pulianensis Wu ＆ Lisp. n. （♂, Guangxi）, S. shilinensis Wu ＆ Lisp. n. （♂♀, Hainan）, S. xianrenensis Wu ＆ Li sp. n. （♂♀, Guangxi）, S. xiangzhouensis Wu ＆ Li sp. n. （♂♀, Guangxi） from China, and S. zhaoi Wu ＆ Li sp. nov. （♂♀, Kanchanaburi） from Thailand. Diagnoses of nine new species are provided. DNA barcodes for six new species are documented for future use and as proof of molecular differences between these species.

Taxonomic notes on Leptonetidae(Arachnida,Araneae)from China,with descriptions of one new genus and eight new species

Species of the spider family Leptonetidae Simon,1890 from China are revised based on molecular and morphological data analyses.A new genus,Jingneta Wang&Li gen.nov.,is erected,with Leptoneta cornea Tong&Li,2008 as the type species.Twenty-two Chinese species previously assigned to the genus Leptoneta Simon,1872 are revised,with eight transferred to Falcileptoneta Komatsu,1970,seven transferred to Jingneta gen.nov.,five transferred to Leptonetela Kratochvil,1978,and one species each transferred to Longileptoneta Seo,2015 and Masirana Kishida,1942.Eight new species are described:i.e.,Falcileptoneta shuanglong Wang&Li sp.nov.(♂),Jingneta caoxian Wang&Li sp.nov.(♂♀),J.jingdong Wang&Li sp.nov.(♂♀),Longileptoneta gutan Wang&Li sp.nov.(♂♀),L.huangshan Wang&Li sp.nov.(♂♀),L.shenxian Wang&Li sp.nov.(♂♀),L.yeren Wang&Li sp.nov.(♂),and L.zhuxian Wang&Li sp.nov.(♂♀).In total,127 leptonetid species from six genera are documented from China:nine species of Falcileptoneta,nine species of Jingneta gen.nov.,101 species of Leptonetela,six species of Longileptoneta,one species of Masirana,and one species of Rhyssoleptoneta Tong&Li,2007.

Europe vs.China:Pholcus(Araneae,Pholcidae)from Yanshan-Taihang Mountains confirms uneven distribution of spiders in Eurasia

DEAR EDITOR,Morphological and molecular data were used to study 35 species of the Pholcus phungiformes species group from the Yanshan-Taihang Mountains in China.The uneven distribution pattern of spiders in Eurasia is discussed,with a focus on Europe and China.Europe covers approximately 10.18 million km2 in western Eurasia,while China covers about 9.6 million km2 in the east.Due to their relative positions to each other and similar land areas,spider species richness in Europe and China is comparable(Li,2020).

Identifying Chinese species of Gammarus(Crustacea:Amphipoda) using DNA barcoding

Using a standard cytochrome c oxidase I sequence,DNA barcoding has been shown to be effective to distinguish known species and to discover cryptic species. Here we assessed the efficiency of DNA barcoding for the amphipod genus Gammarus from China. The maximum intraspecific divergence for widespread species,Gammarus lacustris,was 3.5%,and mean interspecific divergence reached 21.9%. We presented a conservative benchmark for determining provisional species using maximum intraspecific divergence of Gammarus lacustris. Thirty-one species possessed distinct barcode clusters. Two species were comprised of highly divergent clades with strong neighbor-joining bootstrap values,and likely indicated the presence of cryptic species. Although DNA barcoding is effective,future identification of species of Gammarus should incorporate DNA barcoding and morphological detection.

Taxonomic notes of theridiid spiders (Araneae: Theridiidae) from China and Vietnam

Ten new species of the spider family Theridiidae Sundevall,1833 from China and Vietnam are described:Chrysso shantinggui sp.nov.(♂♀),Gushangzao andaoquan sp.nov.(♂),Moneta oupeng sp.nov.(♂♀),Phycosoma yanshun sp.nov.(♂♀),Spinembolia gaofani sp.nov.(♀),S.jiangjing sp.nov.(♂♀),S.lingzhen sp.nov.(♂♀),Stemmops dengfei sp.nov.(♂♀),Takayus xiaorang sp.nov.(♂♀),Yaginumena weidingguo sp.nov.(♀).The unknown sexes of Allothymoites sculptilis Gao&Li,2014,Gyro zeppeli Lin&Li,2024,Parasteatoda longiducta Zhu,1998 are described for the first time.

Comb-footed spiders(Araneae:Theridiidae) in the tropical rainforest of Xishuangbanna,Southwest China

Xishuangbanna, with its typical tropical rainforest, is one of China＇s biodiversity hotspots. Through several years of extensive survey work on the spiders in rainforest and adjacent habitats, 32 genera and 101 species, including 33 new species, of the family Theridiidae were collected. Four genera, Allothymoites Ono, 2007, Nojimaia Yoshida, 2009, Tekellina Levi, 1957 and Yunohamella Yoshida, 2007, are newly recorded from China. The 33 new species are diagnosed, described and illustrated. Type specimens are deposited in the Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing （IZCAS）.

Three new genera of the family Nesticidae(Arachnida: Araneae) from Tibet and Yunnan, China

Three new genera of the spider family Nesticidae, Hamus gen. nov., Nescina gen. nov. and Wraios gen. nov., are reported. Three new species, Hamus bowoensis sp. nov., Nescina minuta sp. nov. and Wraios longiembolus sp. nov., showing remarkable characters in palpal and epigynal morphology, are described based on specimens collected in Tibet and Yunnan, China. All the type specimens are deposited in the Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences （IZCAS） in Beijing.